Manipulation of immune regulation in systemic lupus erythematosus.

Production of autoantibodies by B cells in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) can be interrupted via induction of regulatory and suppressor T cells. We have used the strategy of tolerizing lupus-prone (NZBxNZW)F(1) mice with an artificial peptide based on sequences common to several anti-double stranded (ds)DNA antibodies to induce regulatory and suppressor T cells that block production of anti-DNA antibodies and prolong their survival. At least one type of suppressor T cells (CD8+) and one type of regulatory T cell (CD4+ expressing the IL-2 receptor alpha chain CD25) are raised under this condition. While CD8+ suppressors (TS) require soluble factors to block help of T cells to B cells, regulatory CD4+CD25+ T cells (TR) curb the production of anti-DNA antibodies from B cells via cell contact through molecules that include membrane-bound TGFbeta and GITR. Moreover, CD8+ suppressors seem to act independently on antigen specificity, while TR act in an antigen-specific fashion. We hypothesize that the differences between these two lymphocyte subsets that share the common ability to dampen production of autoantibodies might underlie significant temporal and teleological advantages for optimal control of autoimmune reactivity.

Cellular and molecular mechanisms of regulation of autoantibody production in lupus.

The hyperactive interaction between helper T cells and autoimmune B cells in individuals predisposed to systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) can be interrupted by induction of regulatory and suppressor T cells. Using two strategies-high dose tolerance to an immunoglobulin-derived peptide, and minigene vaccination with DNA encoding T cell epitopes presented by MHC class I molecules-our group has induced at least three types of regulatory/suppressive T cells. They include CD8+ T cells that suppress helper T cells by cytokine secretion, CD8+ T suppressors that kill B cells making anti-DNA antibodies, and peptide-binding CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells that suppress B cells by direct cell contact. Each of these lymphocyte subsets suppresses anti-DNA antibody production and delays the onset of nephritis in BWF1 lupus-prone mice. Patients with SLE have amino acid sequences similar to those from murine anti-DNA antibodies used in these studies, and at similar locations in the VH regions of anti-DNA immunoglobulins. Therefore, strategies described here might ultimately be useful in therapy of the human disease.

Leptin-based immune intervention: current status and future directions.

Current understanding of the role of leptin has expanded from its narrow association with obesity to a variety of effects on different biological processes including immune function. More specifically, leptin links nutritional status and energy balance to regulation of pro-inflammatory T-helper 1 immune responses. This has prompted several studies of targeted intervention with leptin antagonists in rodents to suppress onset and/or progression of chronic inflammation and autoimmunity. This review presents current preclinical evidence and potential applications for leptin-based immune approaches aimed at improving therapy for chronic and autoimmune conditions.

CD8+ T cell-mediated suppression of autoimmunity in a murine lupus model of peptide-induced immune tolerance depends on Foxp3 expression.

Systemic lupus erythematosus is an autoimmune disease caused by autoantibodies, including IgG anti-DNA. New Zealand Black/New Zealand White F(1) female mice, a model of spontaneous polygenic systemic lupus erythematosus, tolerized with an artificial peptide (pConsensus) based on anti-DNA IgG sequences containing MHC class I and class II T cell determinants, develop regulatory CD4+CD25+ T cells and CD8+ inhibitory T cells (CD8+ Ti), both of which suppress autoantibody production. CD8+ Ti inhibit primarily via secretion of TGF-beta. In the present study, we show that the inhibitory function of CD8+ T cells from tolerized mice is sustained for up to 8 wk and at all times depends on expression of Foxp3. Both CD28-positive and CD28-negative CD8+ T cells contain inhibitory cells, but the expression of mRNA for Foxp3 and for TGF-beta is higher and lasts longer in the CD28- subset. In vitro addition of TGF-beta (in the presence of IL-2) induces Foxp3 expression in a dose-response manner. Gene inhibition or blockade with small interfering RNA of Foxp3 abrogates the ability of the CD8+ Ti to inhibit anti-DNA production and the proliferation of CD4+ Th cells. Moreover, a significant correlation between expression of Foxp3 and ability of CD8+ Ti to secrete TGF-beta is observed. Therefore, CD8+ Ti in this system of tolerance are similar to CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells in their dependence on expression of Foxp3, and there may be a bidirectional Foxp3/TGF-beta autocrine loop that determines the ability of the CD8+ T cells to control autoimmunity.

Tolerogenic treatment of lupus mice with consensus peptide induces Foxp3-expressing, apoptosis-resistant, TGFbeta-secreting CD8+ T cell suppressors.

Lupus-prone (NZB x NZW)F1 mice spontaneously develop elevated titers of anti-DNA Abs that contain T cell determinants in their V(H) regions. We have previously shown that tolerization with an artificial peptide based on these T cell determinants (pConsensus (pCons)) can block production of anti-DNA Abs and prolong survival of the mice. In this study, we show that this protection depends in part on the generation of peripheral TGFbeta- and Foxp3-expressing inhibitory CD8+ (Ti) cells. These CD8+ Ti cells suppress anti-DNA IgG production both in vitro and in vivo and require up-regulated expression of both Foxp3 and TGFbeta to exert their suppressive function, as indicated by microarray analyses, small interfering RNA inhibition studies, and blocking experiments. Additionally, CD8+ Ti cells from pCons-tolerized mice were longer-lived suppressors that up-regulated expression of Bcl-2 and were more resistant to apoptosis than similar cells from naive mice. These data indicate that clinical suppression of autoimmunity after administration of pCons depends in part on the generation of CD8+ Ti cells that suppress secretion of anti-DNA Ig using mechanisms that include Foxp3, TGFbeta, and resistance to apoptosis.

Ig-reactive CD4+CD25+ T cells from tolerized (New Zealand Black x New Zealand White)F1 mice suppress in vitro production of antibodies to DNA.

We have recently shown that tolerogenic administration of an artificial peptide (pConsensus) that is based on sequences within the V(H) regions of several murine anti-dsDNA Ig delays appearance of autoantibodies in female (New Zealand Black (NZB) x New Zealand White (NZW))F(1) (NZB/W F(1)) mice and significantly prolongs their survival. The aim of this study was to characterize the T cell population(s) involved in pConsensus-induced down-regulation of autoimmune responses in tolerized NZB/W F(1) mice. Using MHC class II dimers loaded with tolerogenic peptide, we found that pCons favored expansion of peptide-reactive CD4(+)CD25(+) regulatory T cells (T(R)) that inhibited in vitro production of anti-dsDNA Ab-forming cells. Suppression by T(R) was abrogated by the presence in culture of Ab to glucocorticoid-induced TNFR family member 18 or to TGFbeta latency-associated protein. These findings suggest possible relevance of Ag specificity in the mechanism of T(R)-mediated immune tolerance to Ig-derived peptides in NZB/W F(1) mice.

Differences between CD8+ T cells in lupus-prone (NZB x NZW) F1 mice and healthy (BALB/c x NZW) F1 mice may influence autoimmunity in the lupus model.

Immunization with portions of a murine antibody to DNA induced Ig peptide-reactive peripheral CD8+ inhibitory T (Ti) cells in non-autoimmune (BALB/c x NZW) F1 (CWF1) mice. Those Ti suppressed in vitro production of IgG anti-DNA by lymphocytes from MHC-matched, lupus-prone (NZB x NZW) F1 (BWF1) mice, primarily via secretion of transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta). However, splenic CD8+ cells from immunized BWF1 mice failed to suppress anti-DNA. Therefore, BWF1 mice were studied for defects in peripheral CD8+ T cells. The potential to suppress autoimmunity mediated by activated CD4+ helper T and B cells in BWF1 mice was assessed. As BWF1 mice aged, peripheral CD8+ T cells expanded little; fewer than 10% displayed surface markers of activation and memory. In contrast, quantities of splenic CD4+ T and B cells increased; high proportions displayed activation/memory markers. In old compared to young BWF1 mice, splenic cell secretion of two cytokines required for generation of CD8+ T effectors, IL-2 and TGF-beta, was decreased. Immunizing BWF1 mice activated peptide-reactive CD8+ T cells, but their number was decreased compared to young BWF1 or old normal mice. While peptide-reactive splenic CD8+ T cells from immunized BWF1 mice did not survive in short-term cultures, similar CD8+ T cell lines from immunized CWF1 mice expanded and on transfer into BWF1 mice delayed autoimmunity and prolonged survival. Therefore, CD8+ T cells in old BWF1 mice are impaired in expansion, acquisition of memory, secretion of cytokine, and suppression of autoimmunity. Understanding these defects might identify targets for therapy in systemic lupus erythematosus.

Induction of autoantibody production is limited in nonautoimmune mice.

Many individuals develop a single or a few brief episodes of autoimmunity from which they recover. Mechanisms that quell pathologic autoimmunity following such a breakdown of self-tolerance are not clearly understood. In this study, we show that in nonautoimmune mice, dsDNA-specific autoreactive B cells exist but remain inactive. This state of inactivation in dsDNA-specific B cells could be disrupted by autoreactive Th cells; in this case T cells that react with peptides from the V(H) region of anti-DNA Abs (hereafter called anti-V(H) T cells). Immunization with anti-DNA mAb, its gamma-chain or peptides derived from its V(H) region induced anti-V(H) Th cells, IgG anti-dsDNA Ab, and proteinuria. The breakdown of B cell tolerance in nonautoimmune mice, however, was short-lived: anti-DNA Ab and nephritis subsided despite subsequent immunizations. The recovery from autoimmunity temporally correlated with the appearance of T cells that inhibited anti-DNA Ab production. Such inhibitory T cells secreted TGFbeta; the inhibition of anti-DNA Ab production by these cells was partly abolished by anti-TGFbeta Ab. Even without immunization, nonautoimmune mice possess T cells that can inhibit autoantibody production. Thus, inhibitory T cells in nonautoimmune mice may normally inhibit T-dependent activation of autoreactive B cells and/or reverse such activation following stimulation by Th cells. The induction of such inhibitory T cells may play a role in protecting nonautoimmune mice from developing chronic autoimmunity.

Intravenous injection of a D1 protein of the Smith proteins postpones murine lupus and induces type 1 regulatory T cells.

T cells that recognize nucleoproteins are required for the production of anti-dsDNA Abs involved in lupus development. SmD1 83-119 (a D1 protein of the Smith (Sm) proteins, part of small nuclear ribonucleoprotein) was recently shown to provide T cell help to anti-dsDNA Abs in the NZB/NZW model of lupus. Using this model in the present study, we showed that high dose tolerance to SmD1 (600-1000 microg i.v. of SmD1(83-119) peptide/mo) delays the production of autoantibodies, postpones the onset of lupus nephritis as confirmed by histology, and prolongs survival. Tolerance to SmD1 83-119 was adoptively transferred by CD90+ T cells, which also reduce T cell help for autoreactive B cells in vitro. One week after SmD1 83-119 tolerance induction in prenephritic mice, we detected cytokine changes in cultures of CD90+ T and B220+ B cells with decreased IFN-gamma and IL-4 expression and an increase in TGFbeta. Increased frequencies of regulatory IFN-gamma+ and IL10+ CD4+ T cells were later detected. Such regulatory IL-10+/IFN-gamma+ type 1 regulatory T cells prevented autoantibody generation and anti-CD3-induced proliferation of naive T cells. In conclusion, these results indicate that SmD1 83-119 peptide may play a dominant role in the activation of helper and regulatory T cells that influence autoantibody generation and murine lupus.

Identification and characterization of SmD183-119-reactive T cells that provide T cell help for pathogenic anti-double-stranded DNA antibodies.

OBJECTIVE: The C-terminal peptide of amino acids 83-119 of the SmD1 protein is a target of the autoimmune response in human and murine lupus. This study was undertaken to test the hypothesis that SmD1(83-119)-reactive T cells play a crucial role in the generation of pathogenic anti-double-stranded DNA (anti-dsDNA) antibodies. METHODS: Splenic or lymph node T cells derived from unmanipulated as well as SmD1(83-119)-immunized NZB/NZW mice were analyzed in vitro by enzyme-linked immunospot (ELISpot) assay to determine T cell help for anti-dsDNA generation induced by the SmD1(83-119) peptide. Cytokines expressed by these T cells were measured by ELISpot assay, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and flow cytometry. SmD1(83-119)- and ovalbumin-specific T cell lines were generated and characterized. RESULTS: The SmD1(83-119) peptide, but not the control peptides, significantly increased the in vitro generation of anti-dsDNA antibodies in cultures from unmanipulated NZB/NZW mice. Interferon-gamma (IFNgamma), interleukin-2 (IL-2), IL-4, transforming growth factor beta, and IL-10 production increased in response to the peptide in young mice; only IFNgamma and IL-2 were increased in older, diseased mice. Activation of SmD1(83-119)-reactive T cells by immunization of NZB/NZW mice resulted in elevated anti-dsDNA synthesis and, later, increased antibodies to SmD1(83-119). Most cells in SmD1(83-119)-specific CD4+ T cell lines helping both antibodies had increased intracellular expression of IFNgamma, and most expressed both IFNgamma and IL-4. CONCLUSION: The SmD1(83-119) peptide plays an important role in generating T cell help for autoantibodies, including anti-dsDNA, and activates different subsets of T cells as defined by distinct cytokine expression. This peptide is an interesting target structure for the modulation of autoreactive T cells, and its characterization may contribute to our understanding of the role of autoantigen-reactive T cells in the pathogenesis of SLE.