HLA class II diversity in HIV-1 uninfected individuals from the placebo arm of the RV144 Thai vaccine efficacy trial.

The RV144 HIV vaccine trial in Thailand elicited antibody responses to the envelope of HIV-1, which correlated significantly with the risk of HIV-1 acquisition. Human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class II molecules are essential in antigen presentation to CD4 T cells for activation of B cells to produce antibodies. We genotyped the classical HLA-DRB1, DQB1, and DPB1 genes in 450 individuals from the placebo arm of the RV144 study to determine the background allele and haplotype frequencies of these genes in this cohort. High-resolution 4 and 6-digit class II HLA typing data was generated using sequencing-based methods. The observed diversity for the HLA loci was 33 HLA-DRB1, 15 HLA-DQB1, and 26 HLA-DPB1 alleles. Common alleles with frequencies greater than 10% were DRB1*07:01, DRB1*09:01, DRB1*12:02, DRB1*15:02, DQB1*02:01/02, DQB1*03:01, DQB1*03:03, DQB1*05:01, DQB1*05:02, DPB1*04:01:01, DPB1*05:01:01, and DPB1*13:01:01. We identified 28 rare alleles with frequencies of less than 1% in the Thai individuals. Ambiguity for HLA-DPB1*28:01 in exon 2 was resolved to DPB1*296:01 by next-generation sequencing of all exons. Multi-locus haplotypes including HLA class I and II loci were reported in this study. This is the first comprehensive report of allele and haplotype frequencies of all three HLA class II genes from a Thai population. A high-resolution genotyping method such as next-generation sequencing avoids missing rare alleles and resolves ambiguous calls. The HLA class II genotyping data generated in this study will be beneficial not only for future disease association/vaccine efficacy studies related to the RV144 study, but also for similar studies in other diseases in the Thai population, as well as population genetics and transplantation studies.

High-throughput next-generation sequencing to genotype six classical HLA loci from 96 donors in a single MiSeq run.

Next generation sequencing (NGS) methods have been established as an efficient approach for HLA typing because unlike traditional Sanger sequencing, they provide unambiguous results at a reasonable cost. We previously developed a multi-locus index method to genotype four HLA loci (A, B, C, and DRB1) on the Illumina MiSeq platform. We have now expanded this method to include two additional loci, HLA-DPB1 and DQB1. Contiguous full-length amplicons from 5'UTR through 3'UTR regions were generated using one long-range PCR reaction per locus for each of the six loci from 96 individuals of different ethnicities. The six amplicons from each donor were pooled, enzymatically fragmented and given a donor-specific index. This approach enabled sequencing of 576 loci from 96 individuals in a single MiSeq run. Donor-specific sequence reads were demultiplexed, and allele calls were generated from FASTQ files using commercially available software. Comparison to HLA genotypes generated from Sanger sequence-based typing (SBT) identified no discordances among any of the alleles analyzed in this study. Importantly, this method was able to resolve 22 DPB1 and 20 DQB1 alleles that were ambiguous with the SBT method. Furthermore, a novel allele in each of these two loci was identified, with the DQB1*05:01:24 allele having a frequency of greater than five percent. This method was subsequently validated against a blinded panel of 22 samples from the 17th International HLA and Immunogenetics Workshop. The flexibility of the method is further highlighted by successful genotyping of eight loci comprising all classical HLA loci for a subset of the samples. We now present a high-throughput, high-resolution, scalable NGS HLA typing method to accurately and efficiently genotype all classical HLA class I and II loci.

HIV-1 proviral genotypes from the peripheral blood mononuclear cells of an infected patient are differentially represented in expressed sequences.

The RNA genome of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) is established as proviral DNA in infected cells. Only some of these cells may actively produce the array of viral RNAs that support progeny virion production. In vivo expression of a subset of proviral genotypes could influence the experimental characterization of the viral quasispecies. We have explored the relationship between DNA and cDNA genotypes of the envelope gene by the molecular cloning and nucleotide sequencing of these templates from noncultivated peripheral blood mononuclear cells from an HIV-1-infected patient. Eleven proviral DNA and nine cDNA clones representing the V1-V3 region of gp120 were recovered and sequenced. The proviral group was more heterogeneous than the cDNA group by nucleotide sequence changes and V1 length polymorphisms. Deduced amino acid sequences from this data set showed that the two groups were distinct in primary structure, in the position of N-linked glycosylation sites, and in the net charge of the V3 loop. The V1-V2 region discriminated between the groups more strongly than the V3 region. The differential representation of HIV-1 envelope genotypes in the cDNA versus the proviral compartment may have important implications for the pathogenesis of disease and for the design of antiviral therapeutics.

Naturally occurring genotypes of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 long terminal repeat display a wide range of basal and Tat-induced transcriptional activities.

The primary body of information on the structure of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) long terminal repeat (LTR)/gag leader genotypes has been determined from the analysis of cocultivated isolates. Functional studies of this regulatory portion of the provirus have been derived from the study of in vitro-generated mutations of laboratory-adapted molecular clones of HIV-1. We have performed a longitudinal analysis of molecular clones from the LTR/gag leader region amplified directly from the peripheral blood of four patients over three years. We have found a remarkable number of point mutations and length polymorphisms in cis- and trans-acting regulatory elements within this cohort. Most of the length polymorphisms were associated with duplications of Sp1 and TCF-1 alpha sequences. These mutations were associated with a wide range of transcriptional activities for these genotypes in a reporter gene assay. Mutations in conserved Sp1 sequences correlated with a diminished capacity of such genotypes to bind purified Sp1 protein. Although no generalized trend in transcriptional activity was seen, a single patient accumulated mutations in NF-kappa B, Sp1, and TAR elements over this period. The analysis of naturally occurring mutations of LTR genotypes provides a means to study the molecular genetic consequences of virus-host interactions and to assess the functional impact of HIV therapeutics.

Genomic organization and functional characterization of the chemokine receptor CXCR4, a major entry co-receptor for human immunodeficiency virus type 1.

CXCR4 is both a chemokine receptor and entry co-receptor for T-cell line-adapted human immunodeficiency virus type 1. The genomic organization and promoter function for the entire transcription unit of CXCR4 were determined. The gene contains 2 exons of 103 and 1563 base pairs (bp) interrupted by a 2132-bp intron precisely between codons 5 and 6 of the coding sequences. A transcription start site was identified 88 bp upstream of the initiation codon, and a polyadenylate addition site was identified 22 bp 3' to a polyadenylation signal. Transient expression assays defined a minimal promoter at positions -114 to +43 relative to the transcription start site. This region contains a TATA box, a nuclear respiratory factor-1 (NRF-1) site, and two GC boxes. Specific factor binding to the NRF-1 site and GC boxes were demonstrated by gel mobility shifts and DNase I footprinting. Site-directed mutagenesis showed that the NRF-1 site is crucial for promoter activity providing the first evidence for the regulation of a signal transduction gene by NRF-1. Sequences between -691 and -191 repress CXCR4 promoter activity. Further study of these regulatory elements will be important to understanding how CXCR4 functions as both a chemokine receptor and human immunodeficiency virus type 1 entry co-receptor.

Negative-strand RNA transcripts are produced in human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected cells and patients by a novel promoter downregulated by Tat.

Current understanding of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) transcription is based on unidirectional expression of transcripts with positive-strand polarity from the 5' long terminal repeat. We now report HIV-1 transcripts with negative-strand polarity obtained from acutely and chronically infected cell lines by use of a template orientation-specific reverse transcriptase-PCR assay. These findings were confirmed in natural infection by analysis of RNA derived from peripheral blood mononuclear cell samples from 15 HIV-1-infected patients. A cDNA derived from a 2.3-kb polyadenylated HIV-1 RNA with negative-strand polarity which encodes a highly conserved 189-amino-acid open reading frame antiparallel to the envelope gene was isolated from acutely infected A3.01 cells. Through use of reporter gene constructions, we further found that a novel negative-strand promoter functions within the negative response element of the 3' long terminal repeat, which is downregulated by coexpression of Tat. Site-directed mutagenesis experiments demonstrated that NF-kappa B I and USF sites are crucial for negative-strand promoter activity. These data extend the coding capacity of HIV-1 and suggest a role for antisense regulation of the viral life cycle.

Recovery of virtually full-length HIV-1 provirus of diverse subtypes from primary virus cultures using the polymerase chain reaction.

In the course of the global pandemic, the human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1) has established at least eight distinct genotypes in the main (M), or prevalent, group of isolates, a variety of rare outlier forms, and intergenotypic recombinants of group M viruses. This genotypic diversity has been documented, for the most part, by sequencing of subgenomic segments of the provirus. Using DNA from virus cultures on peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) and recent improvements of the PCR technique, we have amplified virtually full-length HIV-1 genomes from genetic subtypes A through G of group M viruses and molecularly cloned several of them. Resequencing of the complete genome of a prototype strain after long PCR amplification and cloning has established a PCR error rate of 0.14%. We also report the first complete PCR-derived sequence of a U.S. clinical isolate of genotype B expanded only in primary PBMC; this provirus harbors a uniquely truncated V3 loop.

Defective accessory genes in a human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected long-term survivor lacking recoverable virus.

We have been studying a patient who acquired human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection via a blood transfusion 13 years ago. She has remained asymptomatic since that time. The blood donor and two other recipients have all died of AIDS. Although this patient has shown persistently strong seroreactivity to HIV type 1 (HIV-1) antigens by Western blot (immunoblot), she has been continually HIV culture negative in results from multiple laboratories over the last 6 years and has a very low viral burden. Her CD4+ T-cell count has fluctuated around a mean of 399 cells per microliters, with little change in lymphocyte subset percentages. Strong cellular immune responses to HIV-1 epitopes by this patient have been demonstrated. We now report the results of an intensive molecular genetic analysis of the HIV-1 proviral quasispecies from this patient sampled over 5 years. Long terminal repeat region sequences supported the argument for normal basal and Tat-mediated promoter activities. Sequential sequencing of the nef gene revealed a low frequency (8.3%) of defective genes and a striking lack of sequence evolution. Functional analysis of predominant nef genes by both a cell surface CD4 downregulation and a viral infectivity complementation assay showed wild-type function. In contrast, sequential analysis of an amplicon containing the vif, vpr, vpu, tat1, and rev1 genes revealed the presence of inactivating mutations in 64% of the clones. These data suggest that this patient, initially infected with a virulent swarm of HIV-1, is presently infected with a more-attenuated viral quasispecies as a result of effective host immunity.

Construction and biological characterization of infectious molecular clones of HIV-1 subtypes B and E (CRF01_AE) generated by the polymerase chain reaction.

We previously described the use of extended polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to amplify contiguous 9.2-kilobase (kb) single-long terminal repeat (LTR) proviral sequences from HIV-1 genetic subtypes A through G. We now extend these findings by describing a novel vector system to recover infectious molecular clones from long PCR amplicons. Directional ligation of 9.2-kb proviral amplicons into a recovery vector reconstitutes missing LTR sequences, providing candidate molecular clones for infectivity screening. We show that a previously characterized infectious molecular clone of HIV-1 retains its biological properties upon recovery with this strategy. Three additional infectious molecular clones generated, from primary isolates of subtype B (HIV-1(WR27)) and circulating recombinant form 01_AE (subtype E) (HIV-1(CM235)) by subtype-specific LTR reconstitution, displayed biological properties reflecting their cognate parental isolates. This represents the first report of infectious molecular clones from circulating recombinant form 01_AE (subtype E).

Neutralizing monoclonal antibodies block human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection of dendritic cells and transmission to T cells.

Prevention of the initial infection of mucosal dendritic cells (DC) and interruption of the subsequent transmission of HIV-1 from DC to T cells are likely to be important attributes of an effective human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) vaccine. While anti-HIV-1 neutralizing antibodies have been difficult to elicit by immunization, there are several human monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) that effectively neutralize virus infection of activated T cells. We investigated the ability of three well-characterized neutralizing MAbs (IgG1b12, 2F5, and 2G12) to block HIV-1 infection of human DC. DC were generated from CD14(+) blood cells or obtained from cadaveric human skin. The MAbs prevented viral entry into purified DC and the ensuing productive infection in DC/T-cell cultures. When DC were first pulsed with HIV-1, MAbs blocked the subsequent transmission to unstimulated CD3(+) T cells. Thus, neutralizing antibodies can block HIV-1 infection of DC and the cell-to-cell transmission of virus from infected DC to T cells. These data suggest that neutralizing antibodies could interrupt the initial events associated with mucosal transmission and regional spread of HIV-1.