Different Cluster-Loading Protocols Have No Effect on Intraset and Interset Power Expression.

ABSTRACT: Dudley, CE, Drinkwater, EJ, and Feros, SA. Different cluster-loading protocols have no effect on intraset and interset power expression. J Strength Cond Res 36(7): 1763-1769, 2022-This study investigated the effect of cluster-loading protocols on changes in hang power clean (HPC) power characteristics. Ten trained weightlifters (7 male, 3 female, HPC 1.28 [M]; 1.03 [F] × body mass) completed 4 experimental protocols in a randomized repeated-measures design. Protocols were traditional, a basic cluster, and 2 undulating clusters. Each protocol comprised 3 sets of 5 HPC repetitions at an average of 70% 1 repetition maximum (RM). The load for undulating cluster protocols ranged between 60 and 80% 1RM. Countermovement jumps (CMJs) were performed before and after each protocol to gauge effect on neuromuscular status. Statistical analysis comprised a one-way repeated measures analysis of variance. Peak power was significantly greater in the fifth repetition of the basic cluster set protocol compared with the traditional set protocol (mean ± SD: 6.6 ± 2.8%, p = 0.043, g = 0.25). Neither undulating load protocol significantly altered set power characteristics compared with basic cluster sets; however, when analyzing repetition data, peak power increased as load increased (and vice versa), indicating the prescribed loads were suboptimal for power expression in this sample. There was no change in CMJ height between protocols. Coaches should prescribe inter-repetition rest to maintain peak power across multiple repetitions and sets. Basic cluster protocols seem to be the most practical choice over undulating cluster protocols because there is no need to adjust load between repetitions.

The Effect of Normobaric Hypoxia on Resistance Training Adaptations in Older Adults.

ABSTRACT: Allsopp, GL, Hoffmann, SM, Feros, SA, Pasco, JA, Russell, AP, and Wright, CR. The effect of normobaric hypoxia on resistance training adaptations in older adults. J Strength Cond Res 36(8): 2306-2312, 2022-The effect of normobaric hypoxia on strength, body composition, and cardiovascular fitness was investigated after a resistance training intervention in older adults. A single-blinded, randomized control trial recruited 20 healthy adults aged 60-75 years for an 8-week resistance training intervention in normoxia ( n = 10) or normobaric hypoxia (14.4% O 2 ; n = 10). Subjects performed 2 sessions per week of upper-body and lower-body exercises at 70% of 1 repetition maximum (1RM). Pretraining and post-training, maximal oxygen uptake (V̇O 2 max), muscular endurance (30 maximal knee flexions/extensions), and 5RM were assessed, with 5RM used to calculate 1RM. Subjects underwent whole-body dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) at pretraining and post-training for fat and lean mass quantification. Significance was set at p < 0.05. Subjects in both groups substantially improved their calculated 1RM strength for leg extension, pectoral fly, row, and squat (normoxia; 30, 38, 27, and 29%, hypoxia; 43, 50, 28, and 64%, respectively); however, hypoxia did not augment this response. Hypoxia did not enhance V̇O 2 max or muscular endurance responses after the training intervention, with no improvements seen in either group. Fat mass and lean mass remained unchanged in both groups after the intervention. In summary, 8 weeks of resistance training in hypoxia was well tolerated in healthy older adults and increased upper-body and lower-body strength. However, the magnitude of strength and lean muscle improvements in hypoxia was no greater than normoxia; therefore, there is currently no evidence to support the use of hypoxic resistance training in older adults.

Influence of resistance training load on measures of skeletal muscle hypertrophy and improvements in maximal strength and neuromuscular task performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

This systematic review and meta-analysis determined resistance training (RT) load effects on various muscle hypertrophy, strength, and neuromuscular performance task [e.g., countermovement jump (CMJ)] outcomes. Relevent studies comparing higher-load [>60% 1-repetition maximum (RM) or <15-RM] and lower-load (≤60% 1-RM or ≥ 15-RM) RT were identified, with 45 studies (from 4713 total) included in the meta-analysis. Higher- and lower-load RT induced similar muscle hypertrophy at the whole-body (lean/fat-free mass; [ES (95% CI) = 0.05 (-0.20 to 0.29), P = 0.70]), whole-muscle [ES = 0.06 (-0.11 to 0.24), P = 0.47], and muscle fibre [ES = 0.29 (-0.09 to 0.66), P = 0.13] levels. Higher-load RT further improved 1-RM [ES = 0.34 (0.15 to 0.52), P = 0.0003] and isometric [ES = 0.41 (0.07 to 0.76), P = 0.02] strength. The superiority of higher-load RT on 1-RM strength was greater in younger [ES = 0.34 (0.12 to 0.55), P = 0.002] versus older [ES = 0.20 (-0.00 to 0.41), P = 0.05] participants. Higher- and lower-load RT therefore induce similar muscle hypertrophy (at multiple physiological levels), while higher-load RT elicits superior 1-RM and isometric strength. The influence of RT loads on neuromuscular task performance is however unclear.

Efficacy of Combined General, Special, and Specific Resistance Training on Pace Bowling Skill in Club-Standard Cricketers.

Feros, SA, Young, WB, and O'Brien, BJ. Efficacy of combined general, special, and specific resistance training on pace bowling skill in club-standard cricketers. J Strength Cond Res 34(9): 2596-2607, 2020-This study investigated the efficacy of combined "general," "special," and "specific" resistance training on pace bowling skill. Twelve male, club-standard pace bowlers were randomly allocated to a combined resistance training (CRT) program or traditional cricket training (TCT) program for 8 weeks. The CRT group (n = 6) trained with 300, 250-g, and standard cricket balls; performed 20-m sprints with +20% and +15% body mass resistance (but also unresisted); and completed chin-up and pull-up training. The TCT group (n = 6) trained with standard balls and performed unresisted 20-m sprints. No statistically significant GROUP × TIME interactions were identified. The CRT group demonstrated a "clear moderate" enhancement in peak ball release speed (mean ±95% confidence limits [CLs]: 1.2 ± 1.5 m·s, d = 0.66 ± 0.83), a "clear large" increase in mean radial error (mean ±95% CLs: 7.1 ± 6.5 cm, d = 0.94 ± 0.87), and a "clear large" rise in bivariate variable error (mean ±95% CLs: 7.2 ± 7.8 cm, d = 0.97 ± 1.05). The TCT group exhibited "unclear" changes across all pace bowling skill measures. Both groups displayed "unclear" changes in approach speed, 20-m sprint time, and 1 repetition maximum pull-up strength. In 8 weeks, the CRT program improved peak ball release speed, but at the cost of poorer bowling accuracy and consistency of bowling accuracy. These findings could be attributed to bowling with the heavier balls. The inclusion of "specific" resistance training does not seem to be effective in enhancing all-round pace bowling skill in club-standard cricketers.

Relationship Between Selected Physical Qualities, Bowling Kinematics, and Pace Bowling Skill in Club-Standard Cricketers.

Feros, SA, Young, WB, and O'Brien, BJ. Relationship between selected physical qualities, bowling kinematics, and pace bowling skill in club-standard cricketers. J Strength Cond Res 33(10): 2812-2825, 2019-Although strength and conditioning of cricket pace bowlers has become more specialized in recent times, little is understood about the interplay between physical capacities, pace bowling kinematics, and pace bowling skill measures. This study sought to determine these interrelationships. Thirty-one male club-standard pace bowlers completed 3 test sessions on separate occasions 4-7 days apart. The first testing session comprised an 8-over pace bowling assessment, where bowling skill and selected bowling kinematics were measured. A physical test battery was completed over the remaining 2 sessions. Peak and mean ball release (BR) speed were related with 1 repetition maximum pull-up strength (rs = 0.56, p = 0.005) and correlated with 20-m sprint time (rs = -0.42, p = 0.022; rs = -0.37, p = 0.044, respectively). Mean radial error was associated with 10-m and 20-m sprint times (rs = 0.41, p = 0.030; rs = 0.38, p = 0.037, respectively), and correlated with height and peak power from 3 countermovement jumps (CMJs) (rs = -0.39, p = 0.036; rs = -0.41, p = 0.031, respectively), and mean peak power from 20 CMJs (rs = -0.45, p = 0.020). Bivariate variable error was correlated with front-leg extension angle at BR (rs = 0.41, p = 0.036), and also with approach speed (rs = -0.36, p = 0.050). These relationships may assist strength and conditioning coaches in designing more effective training programs to enhance bowling speed and accuracy. Training interventions are warranted, however, to validate these associations.

Four Weeks of Sprint Interval Training Improves 5-km Run Performance.

Sprint interval training (SIT) rapidly improves cardiorespiratory fitness but demands less training time and volume than traditional endurance training. Although the health and fitness benefits caused by SIT have received considerable research focus, the effect of short-term SIT on 5-km run performance is unknown. Thirty healthy untrained participants (aged 18-25 years) were allocated to a control (n = 10) or a SIT (n = 20) group. Sprint interval training involved 3-8 sprints at maximal intensity, 3 times a week for 4 weeks. Sprints were progressed to 8 by the 12th session. All participants completed a 5-km time trial on a public running track and an incremental treadmill test in an exercise physiology laboratory to determine 5-km run performance and maximum oxygen uptake, respectively, before and after the 4-week intervention. Relative to the controls, sprint interval-trained participants improved 5-km run performance by 4.5% (p < 0.001), and this was accompanied by improvements in absolute and relative maximum oxygen uptake (4.9%, p = 0.04 and 4.5%, p = 0.045, respectively). Therefore, short-term SIT significantly improves 5-km run performance in untrained young men. We believe that SIT is a time-efficient means of improving cardiorespiratory fitness and 5-km endurance performance.

The Effect of Palmitoylethanolamide (PEA) on Skeletal Muscle Hypertrophy, Strength, and Power in Response to Resistance Training in Healthy Active Adults: A Double-Blind Randomized Control Trial.

BACKGROUND: Palmitoylethanolamide (PEA) has analgesic/anti-inflammatory properties that may be a suitable alternative to over-the-counter (OTC) non-steroidal analgesics/anti-inflammatories. While OTC pain medications can impair strength training adaptations, the mechanism of action of PEA is distinct from these and it may not negatively affect skeletal muscle adaptations to strength training. METHODS: The primary aim of this study was to investigate the effects of daily PEA supplementation (350 mg Levagen + equivalent to 300 mg PEA) combined with 8-weeks of resistance training on lean body mass with secondary aims addressing strength, power, sleep, and wellbeing compared to placebo (PLA) in young, healthy, active adults. In a randomized, controlled, double-blinded trial, 52 untrained, recreationally active participants aged 18-35 y were allocated to either the PEA or PLA groups. Participants consumed either 2 × 175 mg Levagen + PEA or identically matched maltodextrin capsules during an 8-week period of whole-body resistance training. This trial assessed the pre- to post- changes in total and regional lean body mass, muscular strength (1-RM bench, isometric mid-thigh pull), muscular power [countermovement jump (CMJ), bench throw], pain associated with exercise training, sleep, and wellbeing compared with the PEA or PLA condition. RESULTS: 48 Participants were included in the final intention to treat (ITT) analysis and we also conducted per protocol (PP) analysis (n = 42). There were no significant between-group differences for total or regional lean muscle mass post-intervention. There was a significantly higher jump height (CMJ) at week 10 in the PEA group compared to the PLA (Adjusted mean difference [95% CI] p-value; ITT: - 2.94 cm [- 5.15, - 0.74] p = 0.010; PP: - 2.93 cm [- 5.31, - 0.55] p = 0.017). The PLA group had higher 1-RM bench press post-intervention compared with the PEA group (ITT: 2.24 kg [0.12, 4.37] p = 0.039; PP: 2.73 kg [0.40, 5.06] p = 0.023). No significant treatment effects were noted for any of the other outcomes. CONCLUSION: PEA supplementation, when combined with 8 weeks of strength training, did not impair lean mass gains and it resulted in significantly higher dynamic lower-body power when compared with the PLA condition. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (ANZCTR: ACTRN12621001726842p).

A randomised controlled trial assessing the potential of palmitoylethanolamide (PEA) to act as an adjuvant to resistance training in healthy adults: a study protocol.

BACKGROUND: Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and analgesics are used frequently by athletes either prophylactically for the prevention of pain, or to accelerate recovery following an injury. However, these types of pain management strategies have been shown to inhibit signalling pathways (e.g., cyclooxygenase-2) that may hinder muscular adaptations such as hypertrophy and strength. Nutraceuticals such as palmitoylethanolamide (PEA) have analgesic properties that act via different mechanisms to NSAIDS/analgesics. Furthermore, PEA has been shown to have a positive effect on sleep and may contribute positively to muscle hypertrophy via PKB activation. Although PEA has not been widely studied in the athletic or recreationally active population, it may provide an alternative solution for pain management if it is found not to interfere with, or enhance training adaptations. Therefore, the study aim is to investigate the effects of daily PEA supplementation (Levagen + ®) with resistance training on lean body mass, strength, power and physical performance and outcomes of recovery (e.g., sleep) compared to placebo. METHODS: This double-blind, randomised controlled study will take place over an 11-week period (including 8-weeks of progressive resistance training). Participants for this study will be 18-35 years old, healthy active adults that are not resistance trained. Participants will attend a familiarisation (week 0), pre-testing (week 1) and final-testing (week 11). At the pre-testing and final-testing weeks, total lean body mass (dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry; DXA), total mid-thigh cross sectional area (pQCT), maximal muscular strength (1 repetition maximum bench press, isometric mid-thigh pull) and power (countermovement jump and bench throw) will be assessed. Additionally, circulating inflammatory cytokines and anabolic hormones, sleep quality and quantity (ActiGraph), pain and subjective wellbeing (questionnaires) will also be examined. DISCUSSION: This study is designed to investigate the effects that PEA may have on pre-to post intervention changes in total body and regional lean muscle mass, strength, power, sleep, subjective wellbeing, and pain associated with resistance training and menstruation compared with the placebo condition. Unlike other NSAIDs and analgesics, which may inhibit muscle protein synthesis and training adaptations, PEA which provides analgesia via alternative mechanisms may provide an alternative pain management solution. It is therefore important to determine if this analgesic compound interferes with or enhances training adaptations so that athletes and active individuals can make an informed decision on their pain management strategies. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (ANZCTR: ACTRN12621001726842p).

The effect of including a series of isometric conditioning contractions to the rowing warm-up on 1,000-m rowing ergometer time trial performance.

Rowing requires strength, power, and strength-endurance for optimal performance. A rowing-based warm-up could be enhanced by exploiting the postactivation potentiation (PAP) phenomenon, acutely enhancing power output at the beginning of a race where it is needed most. Minimal research has investigated the effects of PAP on events of longer duration (i.e. 1,000-m rowing). The purpose of this research was to investigate the effects of PAP on 1,000-m rowing ergometer performance through the use of 2 different warm-up procedures: (a) a rowing warm-up combined with a series of isometric conditioning contractions, known as the potentiated warm-up (PW), and (b) a rowing warm-up only (NW). The isometric conditioning contractions in the PW were performed by "pulling" an immovable handle on the rowing ergometer, consisting of 5 sets of 5 seconds (2 seconds at submaximal intensity, and 3 seconds at maximal intensity), with a 15-second recovery between sets. The 1,000-m rowing ergometer time trial was performed after each warm-up condition, whereby mean power output, mean stroke rate, and split time were assessed every 100 m. Ten Australian national level rowers served as the subjects and performed both conditions in a counterbalanced order on separate days. The PW reduced 1,000-m time by 0.8% (p > 0.05). The PW improved mean power output by 6.6% (p < 0.01) and mean stroke rate by 5.2% (p < 0.01) over the first 500 m; resulting in a reduction of 500-m time by 1.9% (p < 0.01), compared with the NW. It appears that the inclusion of isometric conditioning contractions to the rowing warm-up enhance short-term rowing ergometer performance (especially at the start of a race) to a greater extent than a rowing warm-up alone.

The Physical Differences Between Faster and Slower Elite Male and Female Pace Bowlers.

PURPOSE: This study investigated the differences between selected physical attributes and ball release speed in slower and faster male and female elite pace bowlers. METHODS: Twelve physical attributes and ball release speed were retrospectively analyzed from 63 male and 31 female elite pace bowlers over the course of 5 seasons. Pace bowlers were categorized as either fast (>122.9 km/h, males and >97.8 km/h, females) or slow (<122.9 km/h, males and <97.8 km/h, females) for each sex. Differences in physical attributes between slower and faster bowling groups were compared using Cohen d effect sizes. RESULTS: Faster pace bowlers displayed differences in isometric midthigh-pull peak force (d = 0.25, males and d = 0.68, females) and relative peak force (d = 0.62, males and d = 0.77, females). Faster male pace bowlers displayed differences in relative (d = 0.61) and absolute (d = 0.39) countermovement jump heights. Faster female pace bowlers displayed differences in 1-repetition-maximum bench-pull strength (d = 0.45) and run-of-3 performance (relative average, d = 1.22; relative best, d = 1.12; average, d = 0.49; and best, d = 0.40). CONCLUSIONS: Anaerobic dominant physical attributes appear to be important in both male and female pace bowlers. The contribution of these physical attributes to ball release speed appears to differ slightly between males and females. Lower-body strength (males and females), lower-body power (males), relative anaerobic capacities (females), and upper-body strength (females) appear to distinguish between slower and faster elite pace bowlers.

The Physical Qualities of Elite Australian Pace Bowlers: Typical Characteristics and Longitudinal Changes in Men and Women.

PURPOSE: To determine whether the most important physical qualities in elite Australian male and female cricket pace bowlers change with age and phase of the cricket season. METHODS: An existing longitudinal database (7 cricket seasons) of selected and routinely collected physical testing data from 103 male and 58 female elite Australian pace bowlers age 18-30 years was retrospectively analyzed. Male and female physical testing data from the isometric midthigh pull, 1-repetition-maximum bench pull, run-of-3, and countermovement jump (male only) were analyzed separately by performing linear mixed models on each of the physical qualities. Type III analysis-of-variance tests were conducted to determine if a significant effect existed within the fixed effects of age, season phase, and the age × season phase interaction. Appropriate pairwise comparisons were conducted. RESULTS: Absolute and relative measures of force in the isometric midthigh pull and strength in the 1-repetition-maximum bench pull tests were significantly greater in older male and female pace bowlers. Older male pace bowlers demonstrated significantly faster absolute and relative best run-of-3 times. CONCLUSIONS: Most physical qualities across both male and female pace bowlers demonstrated an improvement with age. This is likely due to a training effect and would be anticipated to lead to a gradual enhancement of ball release speed, in accordance with previous research. Future research should look to investigate the relationship between the development of physical qualities and ball release speed among elite male and female pace bowlers.

The Effects of Modified-Implement Warm-Ups on Cricket Pace-Bowling Skill.

PURPOSE: This study investigated the acute warm-up effects of modified-implement bowling on bowling speed, accuracy, perceived rhythm and perceived sensation with a regular ball. METHODS: A total of 13 male amateur pace bowlers completed 3 sessions in a randomized, counterbalanced order. Each session comprised a warm-up of 21 progressive-effort deliveries with either a regular (156 g), 10% heavier (171.6 g), or 10% lighter (140.4 g) cricket ball followed by a 4-over pace-bowling assessment with a regular ball. Bowling speed was assessed with a radar gun, while accuracy was calculated via the radial error. Subjects rated their perceived exertion (0%-100%), rhythm (1-5 Likert scale), and sensation (1-5 Likert scale) after each delivery. RESULTS: The linear mixed models revealed a significant effect for warm-up condition on perceived delivery sensation (F2,916.404 = 24.137, P < .001), with a significant pairwise difference between the regular- and heavier-ball warm-up conditions of 0.20 ± 0.07 points (estimated marginal mean ± 95% confidence interval, P < .001). There were no statistically significant effects for warm-up condition on bowling speed, accuracy, and perceived delivery rhythm. CONCLUSIONS: These findings indicate that although the regular ball felt lighter to bowl with after using the heavier ball, there were no overall potentiating or detrimental effects of using this particular modified-implement warm-up on bowling speed, accuracy, and perceived rhythm in amateur pace bowlers. Future research is encouraged to trial other protocols for eliciting potentiation to ultimately enhance bowling speed in training or in shorter match formats (eg, Twenty20).

The Relationship Between Prescribed, Perceived, and Actual Delivery Intensity in Cricket Pace Bowling.

PURPOSE: To investigate the relationship between prescribed (preDI), perceived (perDI), and actual delivery intensity (actDI) in cricket pace bowling. METHODS: Fourteen male club-standard pace bowlers (mean [SD]: age 24.2 [3.2] y) completed 1 bowling session comprising 45 deliveries. The first 15 deliveries composed the warm-up, where participants bowled 3 deliveries each at a preDI of 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, and 95%. Bowlers reported the perDI after each delivery. The fastest delivery in the session was used as a reference to calculate relative ball-release speed for the warm-up deliveries, with this measure representing the actDI. Ball-release speed was captured by a radar gun. RESULTS: For perDI, there was a very large relationship with preDI (rs = .90, P < .001). Similarly, for actDI, there was a large relationship with preDI (rs = .52, P < .001). Higher concordance was observed between perDI and preDI from 60% to 80% preDI. A plateau was observed for actDI from 70% to 95% preDI. CONCLUSIONS: The relationship between perDI and actDI was very large and large with respect to preDI, indicating that both variables can be used to monitor delivery intensity against the planned intensity and thus ensure healthy training adaptation. The optimal preDI that allowed pace bowlers to operate at submaximal perDI but still achieve close to maximal ball-release speeds was 70%. Bowling at the optimal preDI may significantly reduce the psychophysiological load per delivery in exchange for a trivial loss in ball-release speed.

Quantifying Cricket Fast-Bowling Skill.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the current evidence regarding the quantification of cricket fast-bowling skill. METHODS: Studies that assessed fast-bowling skill (bowling speed and accuracy) were identified from searches in SPORTDiscus (EBSCO) in June 2017. The reference lists of identified papers were also examined for relevant investigations. RESULTS: A total of 16 papers matched the inclusion criteria, and discrepancies in assessment procedures were evident. Differences in test environment, pitch, and cricket ball characteristics; the warm-up prior to test; test familiarization procedures; permitted run-up lengths; bowling spell length; delivery sequence; test instructions; collection of bowling speed data; and collection and reportage of bowling accuracy data were apparent throughout the literature. The reliability and sensitivity of fast-bowling skill measures have rarely been reported across the literature. Only 1 study has attempted to assess the construct validity of its skill measures. CONCLUSIONS: There are several discrepancies in how fast-bowling skill has been assessed and subsequently quantified in the literature to date. This is a problem, because comparisons between studies are often difficult. Therefore, a strong rationale exists for the creation of match-specific standardized fast-bowling assessments that offer greater ecological validity while maintaining acceptable reliability and sensitivity of the skill measures. If prospective research can act on the proposed recommendations from this review, then coaches will be able to make more informed decisions surrounding player selection, talent identification, return to skill following injury, and the efficacy of short- and long-term training interventions for fast bowlers.

The Reliability and Sensitivity of Performance Measures in a Novel Pace-Bowling Test.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the reliability and sensitivity of performance measures in a novel pace-bowling test. METHODS: Thirteen male amateur-club fast bowlers completed a novel pace-bowling test on 2 separate occasions, 4-7 d apart. Participants delivered 48 balls (8 overs) at 5 targets on a suspended sheet situated behind a live batter, who stood in a right-handed and left-handed stance for an equal number of deliveries. Delivery instruction was frequently changed, with all deliveries executed in a preplanned sequence. Data on ball-release speed were captured by radar gun. A high-speed camera captured the moment of ball impact on the target sheet for assessment of radial error and bivariate variable error. Delivery rating of perceived exertion (0-100%) was collected as a measure of intensity. RESULTS: Intraclass correlation coefficients and coefficients of variation revealed excellent reliability for peak and mean ball-release speed, acceptable reliability for delivery rating of perceived exertion, and poor reliability for mean radial error, bivariate variable error, and variability of ball-release speed. The smallest worthwhile change indicated high sensitivity with peak and mean ball-release speed and lower sensitivity with mean radial error and bivariate variable error. CONCLUSIONS: The novel pace-bowling test incorporates improvements in ecological validity compared with its predecessors and can be used to provide a more comprehensive evaluation of pace-bowling performance. Data on the smallest worthwhile change can improve interpretation of pace-bowling research findings and may therefore influence recommendations for applied practice.