c-Jun integrates signals from both MEK/ERK and MKK/JNK pathways upon vaccinia virus infection.

Usurpation of the host's signalling pathways is a common strategy employed by viruses to promote their successful replication. Here we show that infection with the orthopoxvirus vaccinia virus (VACV) leads to sustained stimulation of c-Jun activity during the entire infective cycle. This stimulation is temporally regulated through MEK/ERK or MKK/JNK pathways, i.e. during the early/mid phase (1 to 6 hpi) and in the late phase (9 to 24 hpi) of the infective cycle, respectively. As a transcriptional regulator, upon infection with VACV, c-Jun is translocated from the cytoplasm to the nucleus, where it binds to the AP-1 DNA sequence found at the promoter region of its target genes. To investigate the role played by c-Jun during VACV replication cycle, we generated cell lines that stably express a c-Jun-dominant negative (DNc-Jun) mutation. Our data revealed that c-Jun is required during early infection to assist with viral DNA replication, as demonstrated by the decreased amount of viral DNA found in the DNc-Jun cells. We also demonstrated that c-Jun regulates the expression of the early growth response gene (egr-1), a gene previously shown to affect VACV replication mediated by MEK/ERK signalling. VACV-induced stimulation of the MKK/JNK/JUN pathway impacts viral dissemination, as we observed a significant reduction in both viral yield, during late stages of infection, and virus plaque size. Collectively, our data suggest that, by modulating the host's signalling pathways through a common target such as c-Jun, VACV temporally regulates its infective cycle in order to successfully replicate and subsequently spread.

Mimivirus circulation among wild and domestic mammals, Amazon Region, Brazil.

To investigate circulation of mimiviruses in the Amazon Region of Brazil, we surveyed 513 serum samples from domestic and wild mammals. Neutralizing antibodies were detected in 15 sample pools, and mimivirus DNA was detected in 9 pools of serum from capuchin monkeys and in 16 pools of serum from cattle.

Mycobacteria mobility shift assay: a method for the rapid identification of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and nontuberculous mycobacteria.

The identification of mycobacteria is essential because tuberculosis (TB) and mycobacteriosis are clinically indistinguishable and require different therapeutic regimens. The traditional phenotypic method is time consuming and may last up to 60 days. Indeed, rapid, affordable, specific and easy-to-perform identification methods are needed. We have previously described a polymerase chain reaction-based method called a mycobacteria mobility shift assay (MMSA) that was designed for Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTC) and nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) species identification. The aim of this study was to assess the MMSA for the identification of MTC and NTM clinical isolates and to compare its performance with that of the PRA-hsp65 method. A total of 204 clinical isolates (102 NTM and 102 MTC) were identified by the MMSA and PRA-hsp65. For isolates for which these methods gave discordant results, definitive species identification was obtained by sequencing fragments of the 16S rRNA and hsp65 genes. Both methods correctly identified all MTC isolates. Among the NTM isolates, the MMSA alone assigned 94 (92.2%) to a complex or species, whereas the PRA-hsp65 method assigned 100% to a species. A 91.5% agreement was observed for the 94 NTM isolates identified by both methods. The MMSA provided correct identification for 96.8% of the NTM isolates compared with 94.7% for PRA-hsp65. The MMSA is a suitable auxiliary method for routine use for the rapid identification of mycobacteria.

A vaccinia virus-driven interplay between the MKK4/7-JNK1/2 pathway and cytoskeleton reorganization.

Viral manipulation of transduction pathways associated with key cellular functions such as survival, response to microbial infection, and cytoskeleton reorganization can provide the supportive milieu for a productive infection. Here, we demonstrate that vaccinia virus (VACV) infection leads to activation of the stress-activated protein kinase (SAPK)/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) 4/7 (MKK4/7)-c-Jun N-terminal protein kinase 1/2 (JNK1/2) pathway; further, the stimulation of this pathway requires postpenetration, prereplicative events in the viral replication cycle. Although the formation of intracellular mature virus (IMV) was not affected in MKK4/7- or JNK1/2-knockout (KO) cells, we did note an accentuated deregulation of microtubule and actin network organization in infected JNK1/2-KO cells. This was followed by deregulated viral trafficking to the periphery and enhanced enveloped particle release. Furthermore, VACV infection induced alterations in the cell contractility and morphology, and cell migration was reduced in the JNK-KO cells. In addition, phosphorylation of proteins implicated with early cell contractility and cell migration, such as microtubule-associated protein 1B and paxillin, respectively, was not detected in the VACV-infected KO cells. In sum, our findings uncover a regulatory role played by the MKK4/7-JNK1/2 pathway in cytoskeleton reorganization during VACV infection.

The interplay between Araçatuba virus and host signaling pathways: role of PI3K/Akt in viral replication.

In this study, we describe the interaction between Araçatuba virus (ARAV), a naturally occurring Brazilian vaccinia virus isolated from an outbreak at a dairy farm, and the host cell's signal transduction pathways. Even though ARAV infection led to phosphorylation of MAPKs MEK/ERK, JNK, and p38MAPK, genetic or pharmacological inhibition of these pathways had no impact on viral replication. We also provide evidence that ARAV stimulated the phosphorylation of Akt (PKB) at serine 473 (S473-P), a signaling event that is required for full activation of Akt during the infectious cycle. Furthermore, pharmacological inhibition of PI3K (LY294002) abrogated ARAV-induced Akt activation (S473-P) and affected early and late viral gene expression, which was followed by a decrease in virus yield (~1 log). Taken together, our data shed some light onto the biological differences between ARAV and vaccinia virus strain WR (VACV-WR), which could contribute, at least in part, to the low-virulence phenotype displayed by ARAV. Thus, while the requirement for the PI3K/Akt pathway for successful ARAV replication is also shared with VACV-WR and cowpox virus strain BR (CPXV-BR), ARAV showed a lower replicative capacity, as well as a smaller plaque-size phenotype after infection of A31 cells when compared to VACV-WR.

The dengue virus nonstructural protein 1 (NS1) increases NF-κB transcriptional activity in HepG2 cells.

Dengue virus nonstructural protein 1 (NS1) is a glycoprotein involved in viral RNA replication. NS1 associates with host cell proteins and can be found in lipid raft domains on the host cell surface, suggesting an involvement in signal transduction events. In this work, we observed that NS1 expression in HepG2 cells increases nuclear translocation of NF-κB p65 protein, which was paralleled by DNA-protein complex formation. Luciferase assays showed an increase in NF-κB transcriptional activities in NS1-expressing cells when compared to parental cells. NS1 may enhance NF-κB function in host cells and contribute to the pathogenesis of dengue.

Dengue virus 3 genotype I in Aedes aegypti mosquitoes and eggs, Brazil, 2005-2006.

Dengue virus type 3 genotype I was detected in Brazil during epidemics in 2002-2004. To confirm this finding, we identified this virus genotype in naturally infected field-caught Aedes aegypti mosquitoes and eggs. Results showed usefulness of virus investigations in vectors as a component of active epidemiologic surveillance.

Vaccinia virus infection in monkeys, Brazilian Amazon.

To detect orthopoxvirus in the Brazilian Amazon, we conducted a serosurvey of 344 wild animals. Neutralizing antibodies against orthopoxvirus were detected by plaque-reduction neutralizing tests in 84 serum samples. Amplicons from 6 monkey samples were sequenced. These amplicons identified vaccinia virus genetically similar to strains from bovine vaccinia outbreaks in Brazil.

Activation of the PI3K/Akt pathway early during vaccinia and cowpox virus infections is required for both host survival and viral replication.

Viral manipulation of the transduction pathways associated with key cellular functions such as actin remodeling, microtubule stabilization, and survival may favor a productive viral infection. Here we show that consistent with the vaccinia virus (VACV) and cowpox virus (CPXV) requirement for cytoskeleton alterations early during the infection cycle, PBK/Akt was phosphorylated at S473 [Akt(S473-P)], a modification associated with the mammalian target of rapamycin complex 2 (mTORC2), which was paralleled by phosphorylation at T308 [Akt(T308-P)] by PI3K/PDK1, which is required for host survival. Notably, while VACV stimulated Akt(S473-P/T308-P) at early (1 h postinfection [p.i.]) and late (24 h p.i.) times during the infective cycle, CPXV stimulated Akt at early times only. Pharmacological and genetic inhibition of PI3K (LY294002) or Akt (Akt-X and a dominant-negative form of Akt-K179M) resulted in a significant decline in virus yield (from 80% to >/=90%). This decline was secondary to the inhibition of late viral gene expression, which in turn led to an arrest of virion morphogenesis at the immature-virion stage of the viral growth cycle. Furthermore, the cleavage of both caspase-3 and poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated deoxyuridine nick end labeling assays confirmed that permissive, spontaneously immortalized cells such as A31 cells and mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) underwent apoptosis upon orthopoxvirus infection plus LY294002 treatment. Thus, in A31 cells and MEFs, early viral receptor-mediated signals transmitted via the PI3K/Akt pathway are required and precede the expression of viral antiapoptotic genes. Additionally, the inhibition of these signals resulted in the apoptosis of the infected cells and a significant decline in viral titers.

Detection and phylogenetic analysis of Orf virus from sheep in Brazil: a case report.

BACKGROUND: Orf virus (ORFV), the prototype of the genus Parapoxvirus (PPV), is the etiological agent of contagious ecthyma, a severe exanthematic dermatitis that afflicts domestic and wild small ruminants. Although South American ORFV outbreaks have occurred and diagnosed there are no South American PPV major membrane glycoprotein B2L gene nucleotide sequences available. CASE PRESENTATION: an outbreak of ovine contagious ecthyma in Midwest Brazil was investigated. The diagnosis was based on clinical examinations and molecular biology techniques. The molecular characterization of the virus was done using PCR amplification, cloning and DNA sequencing of the B2L gene. The phylogenetic analysis demonstrated a high degree of identity with ORFV strains, and the isolate was closest to the ORFV-India 82/04 isolate. Another Brazilian ORFV isolate, NE1, was sequenced for comparative analysis and also showed a high degree of identity with an Asian ORFV strain. CONCLUSION: Distinct ORFV strains are circulating in Brazil. This is the first report on the phylogenetic analysis of an ORFV in South America.

Serological Evidence of Orthopoxvirus Circulation Among Equids, Southeast Brazil.

Since 1999 Vaccinia virus (VACV) outbreaks involving bovines and humans have been reported in Brazil; this zoonosis is known as Bovine Vaccinia (BV) and is mainly an occupational disease of milkers. It was only in 2008 (and then again in 2011 and 2014) however, that VACV was found causing natural infections in Brazilian equids. These reports involved only equids, no infected humans or bovines were identified, and the sources of infections remain unknown up to date. The peculiarities of Equine Vaccinia outbreaks (e.g., absence of human infection), the frequently shared environments, and fomites by equids and bovines in Brazilian farms and the remaining gaps in BV epidemiology incited a question over OPV serological status of equids in Brazil. For this report, sera from 621 equids - representing different species, ages, sexes and locations of origin within Minas Gerais State, southeast Brazil - were examined for the presence of anti-Orthopoxvirus (OPV) antibodies. Only 74 of these were sampled during an Equine Vaccinia outbreak, meaning some of these specific animals presented typical lesions of OPV infections. The majority of sera, however, were sampled from animals without typical signs of OPV infection and during the absence of reported Bovine or Equine Vaccinia outbreaks. Results suggest the circulation of VACV among equids of southeast Brazil even prior to the time of the first VACV outbreak in 2008. There is a correlation of OPVs outbreaks among bovines and equids although many gaps remain to our understanding of its nature. The data obtained may even be carefully associated to recent discussion over OPVs history. Moreover, data is available to improve the knowledge and instigate new researches regarding OPVs circulation in Brazil and worldwide.

Differential role played by the MEK/ERK/EGR-1 pathway in orthopoxviruses vaccinia and cowpox biology.

Appropriation of signalling pathways facilitates poxvirus replication. Poxviruses, as do most viruses, try to modify the host cell environment to achieve favourable replication conditions. In the present study, we show that the early growth response 1 gene (egr-1) is one of the host cell factors intensely modulated by the orthopoxviruses VV (vaccinia virus) and CPV (cowpox virus). These viruses stimulated the generation of both egr-1 mRNA and its gene product, throughout their entire replication cycles, via the requirement of MEK [mitogen-activated protein kinase/ERK (extracellular-signal-regulated kinase) kinase]/ERK pathway. We showed that, upon VV infection, EGR-1 translocates into the nucleus where it binds to the EBS (egr-1-binding site) positioned at the 5' region of EGR-1-regulated genes. In spite of both viruses belonging to the same genus, several lines of evidence, however, revealed a remarkable contrast between them as far as the roles played by the MEK/ERK/EGR-1 pathway in their biological cycles are concerned. Hence (i) the knocking-down of egr-1 by siRNA (small interfering RNA) proved that this transcription factor is of critical relevance for VV biology, since a decrease of about one log cycle in virus yield was verified, along with a small virus plaque phenotype, whereas the gene silencing did not have a detrimental effect on either CPV multiplication or viral plaque size; (ii) while both pharmacological and genetic inhibition of MEK/ERK resulted in a significant decrease in VV yield, both approaches had no impact on CPV multiplication; and (iii) CPV DNA replication was unaffected by pharmacological inhibition of MEK/ERK, but phosphorylation of MEK/ERK was dependent on CPV DNA replication, contrasting with a significant VV DNA inhibition and VV DNA replication-independence to maintain ERK1/2 phosphorylation, observed under the same conditions.

Short report: Isolation of two vaccinia virus strains from a single bovine vaccinia outbreak in rural area from Brazil: Implications on the emergence of zoonotic orthopoxviruses.

Outbreaks of bovine vaccinia disease caused by circulation of Vaccinia virus (VACV) strains have been a common occurrence in Brazil in the recent years, being an important emergent zoonosis. During a single outbreak that took place in 2001, two genetically different VACV strains were isolated and named Guarani P1 virus (GP1V) and Guarani P2 virus (GP2V). Molecular diagnosis was done through restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) of ati gene (A26L) and by sequence analysis of a group of five VACV genes including the C11R, J2R, A56R, B18R, and E3L genes. These findings confirmed the co-circulation of two different Vaccinia virus strains during the same outbreak, raising important questions about the origin, emergence, and circulation of VACV strains in Brazil.

Evidence of Apeu Virus Infection in Wild Monkeys, Brazilian Amazon.

Orthobunyaviruses are arboviruses in which at least 30 members are human pathogens. The members of group C orthobunyaviruses were first isolated in the Brazilian Amazon in 1950, since that time little information is accumulated about ecology and the medical impact of these virus groups in Brazil. Herein, we describe the evidence of Apeu virus (APEUV; an Orthobunyavirus member) infection in wild monkeys from the Brazilian Amazon forest. APEUV was detected by using a neutralizing antibody in serum and its RNA, suggesting past and acute infection of Amazonian monkeys by this virus. These results altogether represent an important contribution of orthobunyavirus ecology in the Amazon and an update about recent circulation and risk for humans with expansion of the cities to Amazon forest.

Spatial-Temporal Co-Circulation of Dengue Virus 1, 2, 3, and 4 Associated with Coinfection Cases in a Hyperendemic Area of Brazil: A 4-Week Survey.

Dengue is currently regarded as a major public health problem worldwide. In a hyperendemic region during an outbreak, we detected the co-circulation of all Dengue virus (DENV) serotypes including two different genotypes of DENV-3 and DENV-4, and concurrent infections with up to three serotypes were identified in symptomatic patients. A total of 49 acute phase plasma samples from patients clinically suspected of dengue were collected during the 4 weeks of May 2013. DENV-1-4 was detected by reverse transcriptase semi-nested polymerase chain reaction in 33 samples (67.3%), of which 26 DNA fragments were sequenced. Twenty samples (76.9%) were identified with a single DENV serotype and six (23.1%) with more than one serotype. DENV-3 was the predominant serotype of the outbreak. On the basis of phylogenetic analyses, DENV-1 isolates belong to genotype V, DENV-2 to American-Asian genotype, DENV-3 to genotypes I and III, and DENV-4 to genotypes I and II.

Characterization of alpha-enolase as an interferon-alpha 2 alpha 1 regulated gene.

Interferons (IFNs) are multifunctional cytokines that after binding to the cell surface receptor induce the expression of a large number of genes, which in turn, mediate many biological processes including host defense, cell growth control, signaling, and metabolism. Here we show that IFN-alpha activates the mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) ERK1/2 and the transcription factor CREB/ATF-1, which lead to the alpha-enolase (alpha-ENO) gene expression in fibroblasts. Alpha-ENO mRNA accumulation was apparent 6 h post-IFN stimulation and required both de novo protein synthesis and active gene transcription, which is typical of a secondary response gene. Alpha-ENO expression does not appear to be restricted to fibroblasts, since it was equally verified in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). Furthermore, IFN-alpha stimulates the expression of the primary response genes c-fos and egr-1, which was followed by an increase in DNA binding activity of c-FOS and EGR-1 proteins, as verified by shift assays using the cis-acting elements AP-1 and EGR-1 localized at the alpha-ENO promoter. Finally, we also demonstrated that IFN treatment of PBMC cause an increase in both, alpha-ENO expression on the cell surface and plasmin generation followed addition of exogenous plasminogen.

The vaccinia virus-stimulated mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway is required for virus multiplication.

Early events play a decisive role in virus multiplication. We have shown previously that activation of MAPK/ERK1/2 (mitogen-activated protein kinase/extracellular-signal-regulated kinase 1/2) and protein kinase A are pivotal for vaccinia virus (VV) multiplication [de Magalhães, Andrade, Silva, Sousa, Ropert, Ferreira, Kroon, Gazzinelli and Bonjardim (2001) J. Biol. Chem. 276, 38353-38360]. In the present study, we show that VV infection provoked a sustained activation of both ERK1/2 and RSK2 (ribosomal S6 kinase 2). Our results also provide evidence that this pattern of kinase activation depends on virus multiplication and ongoing protein synthesis and is maintained independently of virus DNA synthesis. It is noteworthy that the VGF (VV growth factor), although involved, is not essential for prolonged ERK1/2 activation. Furthermore, our findings suggest that the VV-stimulated ERK1/2 activation also seems to require actin dynamics, microtubule polymerization and tyrosine kinase phosphorylation. The VV-stimulated pathway MEK/ERK1/2/RSK2 (where MEK stands for MAPK/ERK kinase) leads to phosphorylation of the ternary complex factor Elk-1 and expression of the early growth response (egr-1) gene, which kinetically paralleled the kinase activation. The recruitment of this pathway is biologically relevant, since its disruption caused a profound effect on viral thymidine kinase gene expression, viral DNA replication and VV multiplication. This pattern of sustained kinase activation after VV infection is unique. In addition, by connecting upstream signals generated at the cytoskeleton and by tyrosine kinase, the MEK/ERK1/2/RSK2 cascade seems to play a decisive role not only at early stages of the infection, i.e. post-penetration, but is also crucial to define the fate of virus progeny.

A resourceful giant: APMV is able to interfere with the human type I interferon system.

Acanthamoeba polyphaga mimivirus (APMV) is a giant, double-stranded virus of the Mimiviridae family that was discovered in 2003. Recent studies have shown that this virus is able to replicate in murine and human phagocytes and might be considered a putative human pathogen that causes pneumonia. However, there is little data regarding APMV and its host defense relationship. In the present study, we investigated how some components of the interferon (IFN) system are stimulated by APMV in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and how APMV replication is affected by IFN treatment. Our results demonstrated that APMV is able to replicate in human PBMCs, inducing type I Interferons (IFNs) but inhibiting interferon stimulated genes (ISG) induction by viroceptor and STAT-1 and STAT-2 dephosphorylation independent mechanisms. We also showed that APMV is resistant to the antiviral action of interferon-alpha2 (IFNA2) but is sensitive to the antiviral action of interferon-beta (IFNB1). Our results demonstrated the productive infection of professional phagocytes with APMV and showed that this virus is recognized by the immune system of vertebrates and inhibits it. It provides the first data regarding APMV and the IFN system interaction and raise new and relevant evolutional questions about the relationship between APMV and vertebrate hosts.

Acanthamoeba polyphaga mimivirus stability in environmental and clinical substrates: implications for virus detection and isolation.

Viruses are extremely diverse and abundant and are present in countless environments. Giant viruses of the Megavirales order have emerged as a fascinating research topic for virologists around the world. As evidence of their ubiquity and ecological impact, mimiviruses have been found in multiple environmental samples. However, isolation of these viruses from environmental samples is inefficient, mainly due to methodological limitations and lack of information regarding the interactions between viruses and substrates. In this work, we demonstrate the long-lasting stability of mimivirus in environmental (freshwater and saline water) and hospital (ventilator plastic device tube) substrates, showing the detection of infectious particles after more than 9 months. In addition, an enrichment protocol was implemented that remarkably increased mimivirus detection from all tested substrates, including field tests. Moreover, biological, morphological and genetic tests revealed that the enrichment protocol maintained mimivirus particle integrity. In conclusion, our work demonstrated the stability of APMV in samples of environmental and health interest and proposed a reliable and easy protocol to improve giant virus isolation. The data presented here can guide future giant virus detection and isolation studies.