Kinematic metrics and surgeon experience in robotic cholecystectomies: a pilot study on breaking down technical performance.

BACKGROUND: Recent studies have correlated surgical skill measured by video-based assessment with improved clinical outcomes. Certain automated measures of operative performance in robotic surgery can be gathered beyond video review called objective performance indicators (OPIs). We explore the relationship between OPIs, surgeon experience, and postoperative recovery, hypothesizing that more efficient dissection will be associated with experience. METHODS: Fifty-six robotic cholecystectomies between February 2022 and March 2023 were recorded at a large tertiary referral center. Surgeon experience and clinical outcomes data from the EMR were obtained for all 56 cases with 10 completing the QOL survey. Two steps of robotic cholecystectomies were reviewed: dissection of Calot's triangle (DCT) and dissection of the gallbladder from the liver (DGL). Postoperative recovery was measured using the SF-36 well-being survey. Univariate analysis was conducted using Pearson's coefficient. RESULTS: Increased operative experience was associated with more efficient camera and instrument movements. DCT had 7 and DGL had 31 of 41 OPIs that correlated with experience. With respect to DGL, more experienced surgeons had reduced step duration and instrument path length and increased camera and instrument speeds. CONCLUSIONS: Several OPIs correlate with surgical experience and may form the basis of more instructive feedback for trainees and less experienced surgeons in improving intraoperative technique.

Bringing Artificial Intelligence to the operating room: edge computing for real-time surgical phase recognition.

BACKGROUND: Automation of surgical phase recognition is a key effort toward the development of Computer Vision (CV) algorithms, for workflow optimization and video-based assessment. CV is a form of Artificial Intelligence (AI) that allows interpretation of images through a deep learning (DL)-based algorithm. The improvements in Graphic Processing Unit (GPU) computing devices allow researchers to apply these algorithms for recognition of content in videos in real-time. Edge computing, where data is collected, analyzed, and acted upon in close proximity to the collection source, is essential meet the demands of workflow optimization by providing real-time algorithm application. We implemented a real-time phase recognition workflow and demonstrated its performance on 10 Robotic Inguinal Hernia Repairs (RIHR) to obtain phase predictions during the procedure. METHODS: Our phase recognition algorithm was developed with 211 videos of RIHR originally annotated into 14 surgical phases. Using these videos, a DL model with a ResNet-50 backbone was trained and validated to automatically recognize surgical phases. The model was deployed to a GPU, the Nvidia® Jetson Xavier™ NX edge computing device. RESULTS: This model was tested on 10 inguinal hernia repairs from four surgeons in real-time. The model was improved using post-recording processing methods such as phase merging into seven final phases (peritoneal scoring, mesh placement, preperitoneal dissection, reduction of hernia, out of body, peritoneal closure, and transitionary idle) and averaging of frames. Predictions were made once per second with a processing latency of approximately 250 ms. The accuracy of the real-time predictions ranged from 59.8 to 78.2% with an average accuracy of 68.7%. CONCLUSION: A real-time phase prediction of RIHR using a CV deep learning model was successfully implemented. This real-time CV phase segmentation system can be useful for monitoring surgical progress and be integrated into software to provide hospital workflow optimization.

Outcome prediction in bariatric surgery through video-based assessment.

INTRODUCTION: The relationship between intraoperative surgical performance scores and patient outcomes has not been demonstrated at a single-case level. The GEARS score is a Likert-based scale that quantifies robotic surgical proficiency in 5 domains. Given that even highly skilled surgeons can have variability in their skill among their cases, we hypothesized that at a patient level, higher surgical skill as determined by the GEARS score will predict individual patient outcomes. METHODS: Patients undergoing robotic sleeve gastrectomy between July 2018 and January 2021 at a single-health care system were captured in a prospective database. Bivariate Pearson's correlation was used to compare continuous variables, one-way ANOVA for categorical variables compared with a continuous variable, and chi-square for two categorical variables. Significant variables in the univariable screen were included in a multivariable linear regression model. Two-tailed p-value < 0.05 was considered significant. RESULTS: Of 162 patients included, 9 patients (5.5%) experienced a serious morbidity within 30 days. The average excess weight loss (EWL) was 72 ± 12% at 6 months and 74 ± 15% at 12 months. GEARS score was not significantly correlated with EWL at 6 months (p = 0.349), 12 months (p = 0.468), or serious morbidity (p = 0.848) on unadjusted analysis. After adjusting, total GEARS score was not correlated with serious morbidity (p = 0.914); however, GEARS score did predict EWL at 6 (p < 0.001) and 12 months (p < 0.001). All GEARS subcomponent scores, bimanual dexterity, depth perception, efficiency, force sensitivity, and robotic control were predictive of EWL at 6 months (p < 0.001) and 12 months (p < 0.001) on multivariable analysis. CONCLUSION: For patients undergoing sleeve gastrectomy, surgical skill as assessed by the GEARS score was correlated with EWL, suggesting that better performance of a sleeve gastrectomy can result in improved postoperative weight loss.

SAGES video acquisition framework-analysis of available OR recording technologies by the SAGES AI task force.

BACKGROUND: Surgical video recording provides the opportunity to acquire intraoperative data that can subsequently be used for a variety of quality improvement, research, and educational applications. Various recording devices are available for standard operating room camera systems. Some allow for collateral data acquisition including activities of the OR staff, kinematic measurements (motion of surgical instruments), and recording of the endoscopic video streams. Additional analysis through computer vision (CV), which allows software to understand and perform predictive tasks on images, can allow for automatic phase segmentation, instrument tracking, and derivative performance-geared metrics. With this survey, we summarize available surgical video acquisition technologies and associated performance analysis platforms. METHODS: In an effort promoted by the SAGES Artificial Intelligence Task Force, we surveyed the available video recording technology companies. Of thirteen companies approached, nine were interviewed, each over an hour-long video conference. A standard set of 17 questions was administered. Questions spanned from data acquisition capacity, quality, and synchronization of video with other data, availability of analytic tools, privacy, and access. RESULTS: Most platforms (89%) store video in full-HD (1080p) resolution at a frame rate of 30 fps. Most (67%) of available platforms store data in a Cloud-based databank as opposed to institutional hard drives. CV powered analysis is featured in some platforms: phase segmentation in 44% platforms, out of body blurring or tool tracking in 33%, and suture time in 11%. Kinematic data are provided by 22% and perfusion imaging in one device. CONCLUSION: Video acquisition platforms on the market allow for in depth performance analysis through manual and automated review. Most of these devices will be integrated in upcoming robotic surgical platforms. Platform analytic supplementation, including CV, may allow for more refined performance analysis to surgeons and trainees. Most current AI features are related to phase segmentation, instrument tracking, and video blurring.

Kinematic data profile and clinical outcomes in robotic inguinal hernia repairs: a pilot study.

BACKGROUND: Surgical training requires clinical knowledge and technical skills to operate safely and optimize clinical outcomes. Technical skills are hard to measure. The Intuitive Data Recorder (IDR), (Sunnyvale, CA) allows for the measurement of technical skills using objective performance indicators (OPIs) from kinematic event data. Our goal was to determine whether OPIs improve with surgeon experience and whether they are correlated with clinical outcomes for robotic inguinal hernia repair (RIHR). METHODS: The IDR was used to record RIHRs from six surgeons. Data were obtained from 98 inguinal hernia repairs from February 2022 to February 2023. Patients were called on postoperative days 5-10 and asked to take the Carolina Comfort Scale (CCS) survey to evaluate acute clinical outcomes. A Pearson test was run to determine correlations between OPIs from the IDR with a surgeon's yearly RIHR experience and with CCS scores. Linear regression was then run for correlated OPIs. RESULTS: Multiple OPIs were correlated with surgeon experience. Specifically, for the task of peritoneal flap exploration, we found that 23 OPIs were significantly correlated with surgeons' 1-year RIHR case number. Total angular motion distance of the left arm instrument had a correlation of - 0.238 (95% CI - 0.417, - 0.042) for RIHR yearly case number. Total angular motion distance of right arm instrument was also negatively correlated with RIHR in 1 year with a correlation of - 0.242 (95% CI - 0.420, - 0.046). For clinical outcomes, wrist articulation of the surgeon's console positively correlated with acute sensation scores from the CCS with a correlation of 0.453 (95% CI 0.013, 0.746). CONCLUSIONS: This study defines multiple OPIs that correlate with surgeon experience and with outcomes. Using this knowledge, surgical simulation platforms can be designed to teach patterns to surgical trainees that are associated with increased surgical experience and with improved postoperative outcomes.

SAGES consensus recommendations on surgical video data use, structure, and exploration (for research in artificial intelligence, clinical quality improvement, and surgical education).

BACKGROUND: Surgery generates a vast amount of data from each procedure. Particularly video data provides significant value for surgical research, clinical outcome assessment, quality control, and education. The data lifecycle is influenced by various factors, including data structure, acquisition, storage, and sharing; data use and exploration, and finally data governance, which encompasses all ethical and legal regulations associated with the data. There is a universal need among stakeholders in surgical data science to establish standardized frameworks that address all aspects of this lifecycle to ensure data quality and purpose. METHODS: Working groups were formed, among 48 representatives from academia and industry, including clinicians, computer scientists and industry representatives. These working groups focused on: Data Use, Data Structure, Data Exploration, and Data Governance. After working group and panel discussions, a modified Delphi process was conducted. RESULTS: The resulting Delphi consensus provides conceptualized and structured recommendations for each domain related to surgical video data. We identified the key stakeholders within the data lifecycle and formulated comprehensive, easily understandable, and widely applicable guidelines for data utilization. Standardization of data structure should encompass format and quality, data sources, documentation, metadata, and account for biases within the data. To foster scientific data exploration, datasets should reflect diversity and remain adaptable to future applications. Data governance must be transparent to all stakeholders, addressing legal and ethical considerations surrounding the data. CONCLUSION: This consensus presents essential recommendations around the generation of standardized and diverse surgical video databanks, accounting for multiple stakeholders involved in data generation and use throughout its lifecycle. Following the SAGES annotation framework, we lay the foundation for standardization of data use, structure, and exploration. A detailed exploration of requirements for adequate data governance will follow.

Intellectual property and data ownership in the age of video recording in the operating room.

BACKGROUND: Recording intraoperative videos has become commonplace during surgery, with applications in video-based assessment, education and research. These videos can be both manually and automatically analyzed for performance analysis. A number of commercial entities providing video acquisition and processing has flourished over the recent years. As these companies expand, a number of medico-legal, licensing, intellectual property and data sharing related questions have been raised. METHODS: We performed a qualitative survey of surgeons, hospital administrators, lawyers and commercial entities offering video recording capabilities for serious issues that the average surgeon who records their videos should consider. To address these concerns, we reviewed relevant legal precedent and currently available contracts. RESULTS: We identified several key medico-legal constraints, including data ownership and storage, FDA compliance, privacy and potential for use in litigation, present the legal background and potential solutions. CONCLUSION: Given the availability of surgical recording and the future of video-based performance analysis, surgeons need to become comfortable with the medico-legal issues and the potential solutions available with national physician-led lobbying.

Objective assessment of robotic surgical skills: review of literature and future directions.

BACKGROUND: Evaluation of robotic surgical skill has become increasingly important as robotic approaches to common surgeries become more widely utilized. However, evaluation of these currently lacks standardization. In this paper, we aimed to review the literature on robotic surgical skill evaluation. METHODS: A review of literature on robotic surgical skill evaluation was performed and representative literature presented over the past ten years. RESULTS: The study of reliability and validity in robotic surgical evaluation shows two main assessment categories: manual and automatic. Manual assessments have been shown to be valid but typically are time consuming and costly. Automatic evaluation and simulation are similarly valid and simpler to implement. Initial reports on evaluation of skill using artificial intelligence platforms show validity. Few data on evaluation methods of surgical skill connect directly to patient outcomes. CONCLUSION: As evaluation in surgery begins to incorporate robotic skills, a simultaneous shift from manual to automatic evaluation may occur given the ease of implementation of these technologies. Robotic platforms offer the unique benefit of providing more objective data streams including kinematic data which allows for precise instrument tracking in the operative field. Such data streams will likely incrementally be implemented in performance evaluations. Similarly, with advances in artificial intelligence, machine evaluation of human technical skill will likely form the next wave of surgical evaluation.

Blinded intraoperative skill evaluations avoid gender-based bias.

INTRODUCTION: Gender bias has been identified consistently in written performance evaluations. Qualitative tools may provide a standardized way to evaluate surgical skill and minimize gender bias. We hypothesized that there is no difference in operative time or GEARS scores in robotic hysterectomy for men vs women surgeons. METHODS: Patients undergoing robotic hysterectomies performed between June 2019 and March 2020 at 8 hospitals within the same hospital system were captured into a prospective database. GEARS scores were assigned by crowd-sourced evaluators by a third party blinded to any surgeon- or patient-identifying information. One-way ANOVA was used to compare the mean operative time and GEARS scores for each group, and significant variables were included in a one-way ANCOVA to control for confounders. Two-tailed p-value < 0.05 was considered significant. RESULTS: Seventeen women and 13 men performed a total of 188 hysterectomies; women performed 34 (18%) and men performed 153 (81%). Women surgeons had a higher mean operative time (133 ± 58 vs 86.3 ± 46 min, p = 0.024); after adjustment, there were no significant differences in operative time (p = 0.607). There was no significant difference between the genders in total GEARS score (20.0 ± 0.77 vs 20.2 ± 0.70, p = 0.415) or GEARS subcomponent scores: bimanual dexterity (3.98 ± 0.03 vs 4.00 ± 0.03, p = 0.705); depth perception (4.04 ± 0.04 vs 4.05 ± 0.02, p = 0.799); efficiency (3.79 ± 0.02 vs 3.82 ± 0.02, p = 0.437); force sensitivity (4.01 ± 0.04 vs 4.05 ± 0.05, p = 0.533); or robotic control (4.16 ± 0.03 vs 4.26 ± 0.01, p = 0.079). CONCLUSION: There was no difference in GEARS score between men vs women surgeons performing robotic hysterectomies. Video-based blinded assessment of skills may minimize gender biases when evaluating surgical skill for competency evaluation and credentialing.

Correlation between operative time and crowd-sourced skills assessment for robotic bariatric surgery.

INTRODUCTION: Operative time has been traditionally used as a proxy for surgical skill and is commonly utilized to measure the learning curve, assuming that faster operations indicate a more skilled surgeon. The Global Evaluative Assessment of Robotic Skills (GEARS) rubric is a validated Likert scale for evaluating technical skill. We hypothesize that operative time will not correlate with the GEARS score. METHODS: Patients undergoing elective robotic sleeve gastrectomy at a single bariatric center of excellence hospital from January 2019 to March 2020 were captured in a prospectively maintained database. For step-specific scoring, videos were broken down into three steps: ligation of short gastric vessels, gastric transection, and oversewing the staple line. Overall and step-specific GEARS scores were assigned by crowd-sourced evaluators. Correlation between operative time and GEARS score was assessed with linear regression and calculation of the R2 statistic. RESULTS: Sixty-eight patients were included in the study, with a mean operative time of 112 ± 27.4 min. The mean GEARS score was 20.1 ± 0.81. Mean scores for the GEARS subcomponents were: bimanual dexterity 4.06 ± 0.17; depth perception 3.96 ± 0.24; efficiency 3.82 ± 0.19; force sensitivity 4.06 ± 0.20; robotic control 4.16 ± 0.21. Operative time and overall score showed no correlation (R2 = 0.0146, p = 0.326). Step-specific times and scores showed weak correlation for gastric transection (R2 = 0.0737, p = 0.028) and no correlation for ligation of short gastric vessels (R2 = 0.0262, p = 0.209) or oversewing the staple line (R2 = 0.0142, p = 0.344). CONCLUSIONS: Operative time and crowd-sourced GEARS score were not correlated. Operative time and GEARS scores measure different performance characteristics, and future studies should consider using both a validated skills assessment tool and operative time for a more complete evaluation of skill.

Long-term outcomes following POEM for non-achalasia motility disorders of the esophagus.

BACKGROUND: Optimal treatment for symptomatic patients with non-achalasia motility disorders (NAD) such as diffuse esophageal spasm, esophagogastric junction outlet obstruction, and hypercontractile disorder is not well established. POEM has been offered to these patients since it is a less invasive and less morbid procedure but long-term outcomes remain undetermined. The aim of this study was to assess long-term outcomes of POEM for patients with NAD. METHODS: Records of 40 consecutive patients undergoing POEM for NAD from May 2011 to January 2016 at a single center were retrospectively reviewed. Preoperative and 6-month postoperative symptom scores, high-resolution manometry, pH testing, and timed barium swallow (TBS) data were collected. Patients were contacted by phone to obtain long-term symptom assessment. Symptoms were assessed using a standardized symptom questionnaire with scores for symptoms graded according to frequency and the Eckardt score. RESULTS: Ten percent had minor complications with no postoperative sequelae. 90% of patients had significant improvement in their mean Eckardt scores (5.02 vs. 1.12, p < 0.001) at early follow-up. Improvements in chest pain (1.02-0.36, p = 0.001) and dysphagia (2.20 vs. 0.40, p = 0.001) were seen. Significant improvements in manometric pressures and esophageal emptying on TBS were observed across groups. 38% (10/26) of patients had a postoperative pH score > 14.72. Long-term (median 48 months) symptom scores were obtained from 29 (72.5%) patients. 82% of patients (24/29) had sustained symptom improvement. A small increase in the dysphagia scores was reported in the long-term follow-up compared to the immediate postoperative period (0.36-0.89, p = 0.046). CONCLUSIONS: Chest pain and dysphagia are effectively palliated with POEM in patients with non-achalasia disorders of the esophagus. Significant improvements are durable in long-term follow-up. Despite earlier reports by our group suggesting possible inferior outcomes from POEM for this difficult group of patients, this study is far more encouraging. POEM should be considered in the treatment of patients with non-achalasia disorders of the esophagus.

Real and predicted mortality under health spending constraints in Italy: a time trend analysis through artificial neural networks.

BACKGROUND: After 2008 global economic crisis, Italian governments progressively reduced public healthcare financing. Describing the time trend of health outcomes and health expenditure may be helpful for policy makers during the resources' allocation decision making process. The aim of this paper is to analyze the trend of mortality and health spending in Italy and to investigate their correlation in consideration of the funding constraints experienced by the Italian national health system (SSN). METHODS: We conducted a 20-year time-series study. Secondary data has been extracted from a national, institution based and publicly accessible retrospective database periodically released by the Italian Institute of Statistics. Age standardized all-cause mortality rate (MR) and health spending (Directly Provided Services - DPS, Agreed-Upon Services - TAUS, and private expenditure) were reviewed. Time trend analysis (1995-2014) through OLS and Multilayer Feed-forward Neural Networks (MFNN) models to forecast mortality and spending trend was performed. The association between healthcare expenditure and MR was analyzed through a fixed effect regression model. We then repeated MFNN time trend forecasting analyses on mortality by adding the spending item resulted significantly related with MR in the fixed effect analyses. RESULTS: DPS and TAUS decreased since 2011. There was a mismatch in mortality rates between real and predicted values. DPS resulted significantly associated to mortality (p < 0.05). In repeated mortality forecasting analysis, predicted MR was found to be lower when considering the pre-constraints health spending trend. CONCLUSIONS: Between 2011 and 2014, Italian public health spending items showed a reduction when compared to prior years. Spending on services directly provided free of charge appears to be the financial driving force of the Italian public health system. The overall mortality was found to be higher than the predicted trend and this scenario may be partially attributable to the healthcare funding constraints experienced by the SSN.

Changes in the outcomes of severe trauma patients from 15-year experience in a Western European trauma ICU of Emilia Romagna region (1996-2010). A population cross-sectional survey study.

BACKGROUND: Our experience in trauma center management increased over time and improved with development of better logistics, optimization of structural and technical resources. In addition recent Government policy in safety regulations for road traffic accident (RTA) prevention, such compulsory helmet use (2000) and seatbelt restraint (2003) were issued with aim of decreasing mortality rate for trauma. INTRODUCTION: The evaluation of their influence on mortality during the last 15 years can lead to further improvements. METHODS: In our level I trauma center, 60,247 trauma admissions have been recorded between 1996 and 2010, with 2183 deaths (overall mortality 3.6 %). A total of 2,935 trauma patients with ISS >16 have been admitted to Trauma ICU and recorded in a prospectively collected database (1996-2010). Blunt trauma occurred in 97.1 % of the cases, whilst only 2.5 % were penetrating. A retrospective review of the outcomes was carried out, including mortality, cause of death, morbidity and length of stay (LOS) in the intensive care unit (ICU), with stratification of the outcome changes through the years. Age, sex, mechanism, glasgow coma scale (GCS), systolic blood pressure (SBP), respiratory rate (RR), revised trauma score (RTS), injury severity score (ISS), pH, base excess (BE), as well as therapeutic interventions (i.e., angioembolization and number of blood units transfused in the first 24 h), were included in univariate and multivariate analyses by logistic regression of mortality predictive value. RESULTS: Overall mortality through the whole period was 17.2 %, and major respiratory morbidity in the ICU was 23.3 %. A significant increase of trauma admissions has been observed (before and after 2001, p < 0.01). Mean GCS (10.2) increased during the period (test trend p < 0.05). Mean age, ISS (24.83) and mechanism did not change significantly, whereas mortality rate decreased showing two marked drops, from 25.8 % in 1996, to 18.3 % in 2000 and again down to 10.3 % in 2004 (test trend p < 0.01). Traumatic brain injury (TBI) accounted for 58.4 % of the causes of death; hemorrhagic shock was the death cause in 28.4 % and multiple organ failure (MOF)/sepsis in 13.2 % of the patients. However, the distribution of causes of death changed during the period showing a reduction of TBI-related and increase of MOF/sepsis (CTR test trend p < 0.05). Significant predictors of mortality in the whole group were year of admission (p < 0.05), age, hemorrhagic shock and SBP at admission, ISS and GCS, pH and BE (all p < 0.01). In the subgroup of patients that underwent emergency surgery, the same factors confirmed their prognostic value and remained significant as well as the adjunctive parameter of total amount of blood units transfused (p < 0.05). Surgical time (mean 71 min) showed a significant trend towards reduction but did not show significant association with mortality (p = 0.06). CONCLUSION: Mortality of severe trauma decreased significantly during the last 15 years as well as mean GCS improved whereas mean ISS remained stable. The new safety regulations positively influenced incidence and severity of TBI and seemed to improve the outcomes. ISS seems to be a better predictor of outcome than RTS.

Three-dimensional CT volumetry predicts outcome of laparoscopic splenectomy for splenomegaly: retrospective clinical study.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to determine the predictive value of the preoperative three-dimensional reconstructed volume (3D volumetry) for outcomes of laparoscopic splenectomy. The impact of splenomegaly on the feasibility of laparoscopic splenectomy is still debated. We hypothesized that splenic volumetry may accurately estimate splenic volume preoperatively and be used by surgeons to select patients for laparoscopic splenectomy. METHODS: We performed a retrospective review of 88 patients seen at a tertiary referral center undergoing laparoscopic or open splenectomy between 2001 and 2010. Patients included in the study underwent elective splenectomy without associated procedures and had preoperative imaging available at our institution. We evaluated clinical, demographic characteristics and perioperative imaging as predictors of outcome. Study endpoints included conversion to open splenectomy, operating time, estimated blood loss (EBL), length of stay (LOS), postoperative complications, and mortality. RESULTS: In all, 53 procedures were started laparoscopically. Among them, 7 (13.2 %) were converted to open splenectomy and 7 (13.2 %) to hand-assisted laparoscopic splenectomy. The conversion group was matched with 35 patients who underwent open splenectomy to determine differences in outcomes between these groups. There were no conversions in spleens measuring <1100 cc, whereas spleens of 1100 to 2700 cc had a conversion rate of 41 %. Spleen volume >2700 cc was associated with an 87.5 % conversion rate. Spleen 3D volumetry >2700 cc was the only independent predictor of surgical conversion on multivariate analysis (odds ratio 38.0, confidence interval 4.02-358.75, p = 0.001). Patients who underwent open splenectomy had shorter operating times (160.3 vs. 253.0 min, p = 0.001) than those converted from laparoscopic to open splenectomy. CONCLUSIONS: A 3D reconstructed splenic volume of >2700 cc is a predictor of conversion from laparoscopic to open splenectomy. For spleens measuring <2700 cc, laparoscopic splenectomy may be performed by experienced surgeons with low to moderate rates of conversion. For spleens with a 3D reconstructed volume >2700 cc, laparoscopic splenectomy is associated with high rates of conversion to open surgery.

The Surgical Learning Curve: Does Robotic Technical Skill Explain Differences in Operative Performance?

Background: Prior studies on technical skills use small collections of videos for assessment. However, there is likely heterogeneity of performance among surgeons and likely improvement after training. If technical skill explains these differences, then it should vary among practicing surgeons and improve over time. Materials and Methods: Sleeve gastrectomy cases (n = 162) between July 2018 and January 2021 at one health system were included. Global evaluative assessment of robotic skills (GEARS) scores were assigned by crowdsourced evaluators. Videos were manually annotated. Analysis of variance was used to compare continuous variables between surgeons. Tamhane's post hoc test was used to define differences between surgeons with the eta-squared value for effect size. Linear regression was used for temporal changes. A P value <.05 was considered significant. Results: Variations in operative time discriminated between individuals (e.g., between 2 surgeons, means were 91 and 112 minutes, Tamhane's = 0.001). Overall, GEARS scores did not vary significantly (e.g., between those 2 surgeons, means were 20.32 and 20.6, Tamhane's = 0.151). Operative time and total GEARS score did not change over time (R2 = 0.0001-0.096). Subcomponent scores showed idiosyncratic temporal changes, although force sensitivity increased among all (R2 = 0.172-0.243). For a novice surgeon, phase-adjusted operative time (R2 = 0.24), but not overall GEARS scores (R2 = 0.04), improved over time. Conclusions: GEARS scores showed less variability and did not improve with time for a novice surgeon. Improved technical skill does not explain the learning curve of a novice surgeon or variation among surgeons. More work could define valid surrogate metrics for performance analysis.

Surgical Phase Recognition in Inguinal Hernia Repair-AI-Based Confirmatory Baseline and Exploration of Competitive Models.

Video-recorded robotic-assisted surgeries allow the use of automated computer vision and artificial intelligence/deep learning methods for quality assessment and workflow analysis in surgical phase recognition. We considered a dataset of 209 videos of robotic-assisted laparoscopic inguinal hernia repair (RALIHR) collected from 8 surgeons, defined rigorous ground-truth annotation rules, then pre-processed and annotated the videos. We deployed seven deep learning models to establish the baseline accuracy for surgical phase recognition and explored four advanced architectures. For rapid execution of the studies, we initially engaged three dozen MS-level engineering students in a competitive classroom setting, followed by focused research. We unified the data processing pipeline in a confirmatory study, and explored a number of scenarios which differ in how the DL networks were trained and evaluated. For the scenario with 21 validation videos of all surgeons, the Video Swin Transformer model achieved ~0.85 validation accuracy, and the Perceiver IO model achieved ~0.84. Our studies affirm the necessity of close collaborative research between medical experts and engineers for developing automated surgical phase recognition models deployable in clinical settings.

Calcimimetics versus parathyroidectomy for treatment of primary hyperparathyroidism: retrospective chart analysis of a prospective database.

OBJECTIVE: This study aims to determine the efficacy of calcimimetics in improving bone mineral density (BMD) in patients with primary hyperparathyroidism (pHPT) and compare those results to patients undergoing parathyroidectomy. BACKGROUND: Parathyroidectomy has been shown to improve BMD in pHPT, but calcimimetics have recently been advocated as a medical alternative to parathyroidectomy for pHPT. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We identified 17 patients that were treated with calcimimetics for pHPT. Seventeen patients with pHPT who underwent parathyroidectomy served as surgical controls. Serum calcium level, parathyroid hormone (PTH) level, and femur and spine BMD T scores were compared before and 1 year after therapy. RESULTS: Both groups were demographically matched. Calcium levels normalized in 70.6% of medically versus 100% of surgically treated patients (P = 0.026). PTH levels normalized in 35% of patients treated with calcimimetics versus 76% of surgical patients (P = 0.036). Femur BMD improved in 18.8% of medically treated patients versus 58.8% of surgical patients (P = 0.032). Spine BMD improved in 70.6% of medically treated patients versus 82.4% of surgical patients (P = 0.69). Further analysis demonstrated that regardless of treatment, normalization of PTH was associated with significant improvement in femur (P = 0.03) and spine BMD (P < 0.001). Normalization of calcium without normalization of PTH did not impact BMD. CONCLUSIONS: Parathyroidectomy results in greater normalization of serum calcium and PTH levels and significantly improves cortical BMD compared to calcimimetics. Regardless of treatment, normalization of PTH is associated with significant improvement in spine and femur BMD, suggesting that the superior effects of surgery may be mediated by better control of PTH.

Prognostic criteria for postoperative mortality in 170 patients undergoing major right hepatectomy.

BACKGROUND: Postoperative hepatic failure is a dreadful complication after major hepatectomy and carries high morbidity and mortality rates. In this study, we assessed the accuracy of the 50/50 criteria (bilirubin >2.9 mg/dL and international normalized ratio >1.7 on postoperative day 5) and the Mullen criteria (bilirubin peak >7 mg/dL on postoperative days 1-7) in predicting death from hepatic failure in patients undergoing right hepatectomy only. In addition, we identified prognostic factors linked to intra-hospital morbidity and mortality in these patients. METHODS: One hundred seventy consecutive patients underwent major right hepatectomy at a tertiary medical center from 2000 to 2008. Nineteen (11.2%) patients suffered from liver cirrhosis. Univariate and multivariate analyses were performed to identify predictors of intra-hospital mortality, morbidity and death from hepatic failure. RESULTS: The intra-hospital mortality was 6.5% (11/170). Of the six patients who died from hepatic failure, one was positive for the 50/50 criteria, but all six patients were positive for the Mullen criteria. Multivariate analysis showed that male gender, hepatitis C (HCV), hepatocellular carcinoma, postoperative bilirubin >7 mg/dL and ALT<188 U/L on postoperative day 1 were predictive of death from hepatic failure in the postoperative period. Age >65 years, HCV, reoperation, and renal failure were significant predictors of overall intra-hospital mortality on multivariate analysis. CONCLUSIONS: The Mullen criteria were more accurate than the 50/50 criteria in predicting death from hepatic failure in patients undergoing right hepatectomy. A bilirubin peak >7 mg/dL in the postoperative period, HCV positivity, hepatocellular carcinoma, and an ALT level <188 U/L on postoperative day 1 were associated with death from hepatic failure in our patient population.

Does Surgeon Experience Correlate with Crowd-Sourced Skill Assessment in Robotic Bariatric Surgery?

BACKGROUND: The Global Evaluative Assessment of Robotic Skills (GEARS) rubric provides a measure of skill in robotic surgery. We hypothesize surgery performed by more experienced operators will be associated with higher GEARS scores. METHOD: Patients undergoing sleeve gastrectomy from 2016 to 2020 were analyzed. Three groups were defined by time in practice: less than 5, between 5 and 15, and more than 15 years. Continuous variables were compared with ANOVA and multivariable regression was performed. RESULTS: Fourteen operators performing 154 cases were included. More experienced surgeons had higher GEARS scores and shorter operative times. On multivariable regression, operative time (P = 0.027), efficiency (P = .022), depth perception (P = 0.033), and bimanual dexterity (P = 0.047) were associated with experience. CONCLUSIONS: In our video-based assessment (VBA) model, operative time and several GEARS subcomponent scores were associated with surgical experience. Further studies should determine the association between these metrics and surgical outcomes.

Management and outcome of 308 cases of liver trauma in Bologna Trauma Center in 10 years.

INTRODUCTION: Management of Liver Trauma may vary widely from NOM +/- angioembolization to Damage Control Surgery. Multidisciplinary management is essential for achieving better outcomes. MATERIAL AND METHODS: During 2000-2009 period 308 patients with liver injury were admitted to level 1 trauma center and recorded in Trauma Registry. Collected data are demographics, AAST grade, initial treatment (operative or non-operative treatment) and outcome (failure of NOM), death. All patients were initially assessed according to ATLS guidelines. In case of haemodynamic instability and FAST evidence of intra-abdominal free fluid, the patients underwent immediate laparotomy. Hemodynamically stable patients, underwent CT scan and were admitted in ICU for NOM. RESULTS: Two hundred fourteen patients (69.5%) were initially managed with NOM. In 185 patients this was successful. Within the other 29 patients, failure of NOM was due to liver-related causes in 12 patients and non-liver-related causes in 17 Greater the grade of liver injury, fewer patients could be enrolled for NOM (85.8% in I-II and 83.3% in III against 39.8% in IV-V). Of those initially treated non-operatively, the likelihood of failure was greater in more severely injured patients (24.4% liver-related failure rate in IV-V against the 1.3% and 1.0% in I-II and III respectively). One hundred twenty-three patients (40% of the whole population study--308 patients) underwent laparotomy: 94 immediately after admission, because no eligible for NOM; 29 after NOM failure . In the 81 patients in which liver bleeding was still going on at laparotomy, hemostasis was attempted in two different ways: in the patients affected by hypothermia, coagulopathy and acidosis, perihepatic packing was the treatment of choice. In the other cases a "direct repair" technique was preferred. "Early mortality" which was expected to be worse in patients with such metabolic derangements, was surprisingly the same of the other group. This proves efficacy of the packing technique in interrupting the "vicious cicle" of hypothermia, coagulopathy and acidosis, therefore avoiding death ("early death" in particular) from uncontrollable bleeding. CONCLUSION: NOM +/- angioembolization is safe and effective in any grade of liver injury provided hemodynamic stability. DCS is Gold Standard for hemodynamically unstable patients.