Associations between forms of aggression and peer victimization: Does prosocial behavior matter?

Relatively little is known regarding factors that may mitigate the strength of the associations between forms of aggressive behavior and peer victimization. The goal of the current study was to investigate prosocial behavior as a moderator of these links over a 2-year period during middle childhood. Participants included 410 third-grade students (53% boys) and their homeroom teachers. Results indicated that prosocial behavior was associated with lower initial levels of victimization, whereas relational aggression was associated with higher initial levels of victimization. Physical aggression predicted more stable patterns of victimization over time, and prosocial behavior moderated the prospective link from relational aggression to peer victimization; specifically, relational aggression predicted decreases in victimization at higher levels of prosocial behavior and more stable patterns over time when levels of prosocial behavior were low. Further, gender differences were observed in the moderating effect of prosocial behavior on the prospective link from physical aggression to peer victimization, such that it served as a risk factor for boys and a protective factor for girls.

"Weeding out" violence? Translational perspectives on the neuropsychobiological links between cannabis and aggression.

Recent shifts in societal attitudes towards cannabis have led to a dramatic increase in consumption rates in many Western countries, particularly among young people. This trend has shed light on a significant link between cannabis use disorder (CUD) and pathological reactive aggression, a condition involving disproportionate aggressive and violent reactions to minor provocations. The discourse on the connection between cannabis use and aggression is frequently enmeshed in political and legal discussions, leading to a polarized understanding of the causative relationship between cannabis use and aggression. However, integrative analyses from both human and animal research indicate a complex, bidirectional interplay between cannabis misuse and pathological aggression. On the one hand, emerging research reveals a shared genetic and environmental predisposition for both cannabis use and aggression, suggesting a common underlying biological mechanism. On the other hand, there is evidence that cannabis consumption can lead to violent behaviors while also being used as a self-medication strategy to mitigate the negative emotions associated with pathological reactive aggression. This suggests that the coexistence of pathological aggression and CUD may result from overlapping vulnerabilities, potentially creating a self-perpetuating cycle where each condition exacerbates the other, escalating into externalizing and violent behaviors. This article aims to synthesize existing research on the intricate connections between these issues and propose a theoretical model to explain the neurobiological mechanisms underpinning this complex relationship.

Are perceived containment and coping styles differentially associated with reactive and proactive aggression?

Studies informing ways to target aggression in youth, particularly through the identification of internal patterns predictive of concurrent and future levels of aggression, could be particularly beneficial. To this end, the current study surveyed 216 elementary-aged children on topics of perceived containment (i.e., perceived ability of authority figures to control, limit, and set consequences for one's behaviors), coping responses, and reactive (RA) and proactive aggression (PA). Using multilevel modeling, the individual and interactive effects of coping responses and perceived containment on aggression within time and across two school years were examined. Within time, lower levels of perceived containment were associated with greater RA and PA. Passive coping was also positively associated with RA. The relation between perceived containment and RA within time was dependent on humor, whereas the relation between perceived containment and PA depended on problem-solving. Across time, while T1 passive coping predicted the trajectory of both functions of aggression, a greater number of T1 coping responses predicted the slope of RA with problem-solving and friend support-seeking as well as T1 perceived containment also predicting the trajectory of RA. No coping responses moderated the relation between T1 perceived containment and the trajectory of RA. In contrast, humor moderated the influence of T1 perceived containment and the trajectory of PA. Findings give insight into the ways internal processes of perceived containment and coping are associated with patterns of aggression in elementary-aged youth. This work is valuable in identifying several potential areas for prevention and intervention research.

Alcohol Use and Internalizing Symptoms Among High School students: Does Parental Permission Matter?

This study sought to examine percentages of youth who use alcohol with and/or without parental permission and associations with symptoms of depression and anxiety. At least one in four youth indicated use with parental permission, with approximately 12.7% of youth indicating that they use alcohol both with and without parental permission. Those who used alcohol without parental permission, regardless of use with parental permission, reported higher levels of both depression and anxiety symptoms than those who did not use alcohol. Those who reported only using alcohol with parental permission did not differ on levels of depression symptoms from any other group of youth and did not differ on levels of anxiety symptoms with youth did not use alcohol or who only used alcohol without parental permission. These findings suggest that alcohol use with parental permission may not reduce more risky alcohol use and can be associated with internalizing difficulties.

Impact of Sibling Victimization on Child Internalizing Symptoms.

The current study examined associations between sibling victimization and anxiety and depression symptoms while also considering peer victimization within time and six months later among elementary school-age youth. Both sibling and peer victimization were associated with depression symptoms within as well as across time when considered independently. However, when examined together, peer victimization was only uniquely associated with depression symptoms within time and sibling victimization was only uniquely associated with depression symptoms across time. Sibling and peer victimization were associated with anxiety symptoms within, but not across, time when examined independently, and no associations were evident when sibling and peer victimization were examined simultaneously. No interactive effects of sibling and peer victimization were evident for depression or anxiety symptoms, indicating unique rather than cumulative contributions. Findings suggest that the impact of sibling victimization on depression symptoms is more robust than effects of peer victimization over time.

Do after-school activities help mitigate the negative impact of community violence exposure? A person-centered approach.

The current study used a person-centered approach to identify classes of after-school activities that may reduce the harmful effects, including anxiety and depression, of community violence exposure (CVE) in Latino youth. Participants in the current study included 144 students (54.2% male, ages 14-19) who were recruited from a charter high school in a large, Midwestern city. Students provided information on after-school activities, CVE, and internalizing symptoms. Indices supported a two-class model. Classes were characterized by students who reported high participation in extracurricular activities at school (Class 1) and students who reported spending more time completing after school (Class 2). No between-class differences emerged in anxiety or depression symptoms and class membership did not moderate the relationship between CVE and internalizing symptoms. Findings provide a description of Latino youths' after-school activities and support an individualized, person-centered approach to understanding the risk and protection of environmental factors.

Creating profiles of juvenile offenders using functions of aggression and callous-unemotional traits: relations to crime type.

A rich line of criminological theories and research has suggested that individual characteristics may be important to predicting criminal activity. However, there is limited research examining how individual characteristics may be related to the type of crime committed (e.g. violent, sex, drug). To provide guidance to these questions, the current set of two studies used latent profile analysis to identify groups of offenders based on individual factors (i.e. proactive and reactive aggression, and callous-unemotional traits), chosen for their interrelatedness and their established associations with crime, and examined whether these groups relate to type, severity or the number of crimes committed across two studies. In both studies, four groups of offenders were identified, but these groups were not associated with offending behaviors or patterns. Findings and implications are discussed.

Emotion Regulation Attenuates the Prospective Links from Peer Victimization to Internalizing Symptoms during Middle Childhood.

Objective: Peer victimization has been shown to be a robust predictor of depressive and anxiety symptoms over time. Relatively little is known, however, regarding what protective factors may attenuate these associations and render youth more resilient to this interpersonal stressor. Therefore, the current study examined sadness and worry regulation as moderators of the prospective links from peer victimization to internalizing symptoms over a 1-year period.Method: Participants included 464 predominantly Caucasian children (54.7% boys; ages 7-10), as well as their homeroom teachers, from an elementary school located in the Midwestern United States. Child and teacher reports of peer victimization and child reports of sadness and worry regulation were assessed at Time 1. Children also provided ratings of depressive and anxiety symptoms at Time 1, approximately 6 months later (Time 2), and again approximately 1 year later (Time 3). Moderating effects were evaluated using a series of multivariate latent growth curve models.Results: Consistent with expectations, sadness regulation attenuated the prospective links from both child- and teacher-reported peer victimization to internalizing symptoms. Worry regulation also attenuated the prospective links from teacher-reported peer victimization to internalizing symptoms. The moderating effects of emotion regulation did not differ according to gender.Conclusions: Findings suggest that the ability to effectively manage feelings of sadness and worry may serve as a buffer against the internalizing symptoms associated with peer victimization. Additional research is needed to determine whether interventions focused on enhancing victims' emotion regulation skills reduce their subsequent risk for depressive and anxiety symptoms.

Indicators of suicidal outcomes among 6- to 12-year-old treatment seeking youth.

Suicide among elementary school-age youth is vastly understudied despite being a major health concern. This study utilized mediation and moderation models to elucidate the nature of risk factors for suicide by examining the effect emotion dysregulation (of anger, sadness, and worry) has on the relation between ADHD symptoms (hyperactivity/impulsivity and inattention) and suicidal outcomes (suicidal behavior and risk for suicide) in children ages 6 to 12. When accounting for sex, age, depressive symptoms, and emotion dysregulation, hyperactivity/impulsivity was positively associated with suicidal behavior; however, inattention was negatively associated with suicidal behavior. After accounting for the variance associated with sex, age, and depressive symptoms, two interaction effects were evident. At low levels of sadness and worry dysregulation, hyperactivity was positively associated with suicide risk. However, at high levels of sadness and worry dysregulation, hyperactivity was not related to suicide risk. Findings support moderation over mediation.

Informant Discrepancies in Suicidality Screening Tools Among School Age Youth.

As the rate of death by suicide in youth ages 6 to 12 rises, it is imperative to better understand informant discrepancies when screening for suicidality. Accordingly, this study investigated associations among youth-, caregiver-, and clinician-reports of youth's suicidality and their associations with youth- and caregiver-reports of youth's depressive symptoms. Participants were 161 6- to 12-year-old youth presenting for outpatient psychological services at a Midwest training clinic between 2014 and 2019. More than 1 in 4 youth had at least one informant report some suicidal concerns. Results indicated that all informants' reports of suicidality were correlated with one another, with youth- and clinician-report being most strongly linked and caregiver- and clinician-report having the weakest correlation. Clinician- and youth-reports of suicidality were associated with youth-report, (but not caregiver-report) of depressive symptoms. Caregiver-report of suicidality was not associated with youth- or caregiver-report of depressive symptoms. When youth-report of depressive symptoms was regressed on sex, age, and youth-, caregiver-, and clinician-reports of suicidality, there was a trend that youth-report of suicidality was positively associated with youth-report of depressive symptoms. No informant's report of suicidality was uniquely associated with caregiver-report of depressive symptoms. Findings indicate that youth- and clinician-reports at intake are more strongly linked with one another than with caregiver-reports. Further, youth-reports on suicidality screening tools are more strongly associated with depressive symptoms than caregiver-report, suggesting that caregiver-reports are insufficient to assess concerns of suicidality at intake among school age youth.

Interactive Effects of Coping Strategies and Emotion Dysregulation on Risk for Peer Victimization.

The aim of the current longitudinal study was to examine the interactive effects of six common coping strategies (i.e., adult support seeking, friend support seeking, problem solving, humor, passive coping, and cognitive distancing) and emotion (i.e., anger and sadness) dysregulation on concurrent levels and subsequent trajectories of peer victimization over a 2-year period. Participants were 287 predominantly Caucasian students (53.7% boys; ages 6-9) from an elementary school located in the Midwestern United States. Self-reported coping strategies and emotion dysregulation were assessed at baseline; children also provided ratings of peer victimization annually over a 2-year period. Results indicated that the effectiveness of particular coping strategies may depend on children's overt, undercontrolled displays of anger and sadness. Consistent with recent recommendations, these findings suggest that some youth may require interventions that focus on both enhancing emotion regulation skills and teaching strategies for responding to peer victimization in a more adaptive manner.

Diagnostic classification of irritability and oppositionality in youth: a global field study comparing ICD-11 with ICD-10 and DSM-5.

BACKGROUND: Severe irritability has become an important topic in child and adolescent mental health. Based on the available evidence and on public health considerations, WHO classified chronic irritability within oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) in ICD-11, a solution markedly different from DSM-5's (i.e. the new childhood mood diagnosis, disruptive mood dysregulation disorder [DMDD]) and from ICD-10's (i.e. ODD as one of several conduct disorders without attention to irritability). In this study, we tested the accuracy with which a global, multilingual, multidisciplinary sample of clinicians were able to use the ICD-11 classification of chronic irritability and oppositionality as compared to the ICD-10 and DSM-5 approaches. METHODS: Clinicians (N = 196) from 48 countries participated in an Internet-based field study in English, Spanish, or Japanese and were randomized to review and use one of the three diagnostic systems. Through experimental manipulation of validated clinical vignettes, we evaluated how well clinicians in each condition could identify chronic irritability versus nonirritable oppositionality, episodic bipolar disorder, dysthymic depression, and normative irritability. RESULTS: Compared to ICD-10 and DSM-5, ICD-11 led to more accurate identification of severe irritability and better differentiation from boundary presentations. Participants using DSM-5 largely failed to apply the DMDD diagnosis when it was appropriate, and they more often applied psychopathological diagnoses to developmentally normative irritability. CONCLUSIONS: The formulation of irritability and oppositionality put forth in ICD-11 shows evidence of clinical utility, supporting accurate diagnosis. Global mental health clinicians can readily identify ODD both with and without chronic irritability.

Examining ODD/ADHD Symptom Dimensions as Predictors of Social, Emotional, and Academic Trajectories in Middle Childhood.

The goal of this article is to investigate the symptom dimensions of oppositional defiant disorder (ODD; irritability, defiance) and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; inattention, hyperactivity-impulsivity) as predictors of academic performance, depressive symptoms, and peer functioning in middle childhood. Children (N = 346; 51% female) were assessed via teacher-report on measures of ODD/ADHD symptoms at baseline (Grades K-2) and academic performance, depressive symptoms, peer rejection, and victimization on 7 occasions over 4 school years (K-2 through 3-5). Self-report and grade point average data collected in Grades 3-5 served as converging outcome measures. Latent growth curve and multiple regression models were estimated using a hierarchical/sensitivity approach to assess robustness and specificity of effects. Irritability predicted higher baseline depressive symptoms, peer rejection, and victimization, whereas defiance predicted higher baseline peer rejection; however, none of these ODD-related effects persisted 3 years later to Grades 3-5. In contrast, inattention predicted persistently poorer academic performance, persistently higher depressive symptoms, and higher baseline victimization; hyperactivity-impulsivity predicted subsequent peer rejection and victimization in Grades 3-5. In converging models, only inattention emerged as a robust predictor of 3-year outcomes (viz., grade point average, depressive symptoms, peer rejection, and relational victimization). Broadly, ODD dimensions-particularly irritability-may be linked to acute disturbances in social-emotional functioning in school-age children, whereas ADHD dimensions may predict more persistent patterns of peer, affective, and academic problems. By examining all 4 ODD/ADHD symptom dimensions simultaneously, the present analyses offer clarity and specificity regarding which dimensions affect what outcomes, and when. Findings underscore the importance of multidimensional approaches to research, assessment, and intervention.

Bidirectional associations between affective empathy and proactive and reactive aggression.

Preliminary evidence indicates that affective empathy is differentially related to proactive and reactive functions of aggression. However, additional longitudinal research is needed to understand the potential reciprocal nature of these links. The current study examined the bidirectional associations between affective empathy and proactive and reactive aggression over a 6-month period during middle childhood, with attention to potential gender differences. Data were collected from 294 elementary school children (52% girls; M = 9.25 years; SD = 0.944 years) and their homeroom teachers. Affective empathy was assessed using self-reports, and teachers provided ratings of children's functions of aggression. Data were collected during the fall and spring of one academic year. Overall, results suggest some evidence that affective empathy and functions of aggression are reciprocally linked over time. As predicted, Time 1 empathy was inversely associated with Time 2 proactive aggression and Time 1 reactive aggression was inversely associated with Time 2 empathy. Contrary to expectations, Time 1 proactive aggression was marginally positively associated with Time 2 empathy, and Time 1 empathy was not significantly associated with Time 2 reactive aggression. These prospective links did not differ according to gender. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.

Reactive Aggression and Suicidal Behaviors in Children Receiving Outpatient Psychological Services: The Moderating Role of Hyperactivity and Inattention.

The current study examines associations between reactive and proactive aggression and suicidal thoughts and behaviors among youth (N = 115, 62% male), ranging from 6 to 12 years, seeking services in an outpatient psychological clinic. Symptoms of hyperactivity/impulsivity and inattention were evaluated as potential moderators of this link. Children and a caregiver completed self- and parent-report questionnaires on aggression, suicidal behaviors, depressive symptoms, and ADHD-related behaviors during intake. Reactive aggression was more strongly linked to suicidal thoughts and behaviors than proactive aggression. Further, hyperactivity/impulsivity, but not inattention, moderated the association between reactive aggression and suicidal thoughts and behaviors, such that reactive aggression was only associated with suicidal behaviors at high levels of hyperactivity/impulsivity. These findings were evident for reactive, not proactive, aggression and when accounting for the variance associated with depressive symptoms, age, and gender. Hyperactivity/impulsivity is discussed as a potentially important target among reactively aggressive youth for prevention of suicidal behaviors.

Factors associated with perceived containment.

There is growing evidence indicating that a lack of perceived containment, or youth's beliefs about whether adults can control their behavior, is associated with problem behavior. However, little research has examined factors that may contribute to perceived containment, which would be helpful in further tailoring prevention and intervention efforts for problem behavior. The current study evaluated associations between callous-unemotional (C/U) traits, peer delinquency, neighborhood problems, and perceived containment. Associations were examined using a sample of detained youth. Findings indicated that while all three factors were correlated with perceived containment, only C/U traits (particularly the callousness and uncaring subscales) and peer delinquency were uniquely associated with perceived containment. Further, C/U traits did not moderate the links between peer delinquency or neighborhood problems and perceived containment. This study supports the influence of both individual and contextual factors on perceived containment, suggesting multiple factors to target for prevention and intervention.

Predicting sexual behaviors from mid-adolescence to emerging adulthood: The roles of dating violence victimization and substance use.

The purpose of the present study was to determine whether dating violence victimization (psychological, physical, and sexual) and substance use (alcohol and marijuana) predicted sexual behaviors that increase risk for poor outcomes from ages 15-19. Adolescents (N = 1042; 56% female) were recruited from high schools in Southeast Texas in 2010 and followed annually for six years. The mean age of the sample at baseline was 15.09 (SD = 0.79). Participants primarily identified as Hispanic (31.4%), White (29.4%), and Black/African American (27.9%). Participants completed measures of dating violence victimization, substance use, and sexual behaviors annually. We examined unique and interactive associations between substance use and dating violence victimization with sexual behaviors that increase risk for poor outcomes. Multilevel modeling demonstrated that, when examining predictors simultaneously, marijuana use and psychological victimization predicted sexual behaviors over time for males. For females, marijuana use, and physical and psychological victimization all predicted sexual behaviors over time, with marijuana exerting the strongest effect, particularly among females who also used alcohol. Prevention efforts for adolescent sexual behaviors that increase risk for poor outcomes should include a focus on reducing substance use, particularly marijuana, and the effects of dating violence victimization.

Forms and Functions of Aggression in Early Childhood.

Evidence supports the distinctions between forms (relational vs. physical) and functions (proactive vs. reactive) of aggression; however, little research has investigated these two subtype frameworks simultaneously or by teacher-report in early childhood. We examined the factor structures, interrelations, and longitudinal associations of teacher-reported forms and functions of aggression in young children. Preschool and kindergarten students (N = 133; ages 3-6 years; 58.6% male) were rated by their teachers during the spring semester and on two subsequent occasions over the following school year (a three-wave cross-sequential design). Bayesian confirmatory factor analyses and path models were estimated, controlling for covariates and cross-classification of students within classrooms. Correlated two-factor models showed acceptable measurement characteristics for both aggression frameworks. Within and between frameworks, aggression subtypes were highly correlated with one another. Physical aggression showed greater stability than, and was a precursor to, relational aggression, whereas both proactive and reactive aggression were stable and bidirectional. All subtypes-especially reactive and physical aggression-were robustly associated with peer rejection but not with academic performance or depressive symptoms. Results suggest that brief, teacher-reported rating scales can be used to measure forms and functions of aggression during early childhood. However, examination of one framework should elicit questions regarding the other (e.g., to what extent are measures of proactive and reactive aggression capturing physical aggression?), and research following a form-by-function approach may be particularly useful. Given their stability and outcomes, physical, reactive, and proactive aggression may be important targets for screening and intervention in early childhood settings.

Pilot evaluation of a targeted intervention for peer-victimized youth.

OBJECTIVE: Due to the limited effectiveness of extant prevention and intervention strategies, the current study is an initial evaluation of a cognitive behavioral group intervention, originally designed to treat symptoms of depression and anxiety, for youth who experienced peer victimization. METHODS: Twelve third- through fifth-grade youth participated in the intervention, and their data were compared with 12 youth who were a part of a naturalistic control group. Additionally, school-wide data are reported to provide overall school trends. RESULTS: Whereas the intervention group participants exhibited decreases in relational victimization, depressive symptoms, and passive coping, the control group participants exhibited nonsignificant increases in relational victimization, depressive symptoms, and passive coping. School-wide data also indicated overall increases in relational victimization and depressive symptoms, but no changes in passive coping. CONCLUSION: Findings suggest that cognitive behavioral group interventions may provide a promising avenue for addressing the mental health needs of victimized elementary school-age youth.