Maternal-recalled gestational weight gain, pre-pregnancy body mass index, and obesity in the daughter.

OBJECTIVE: Emerging evidence suggests that exposures during fetal life affect adult metabolism. We assessed the relationship between recalled maternal pre-pregnancy body mass, gestational weight gain (GWG), and adiposity in the daughter. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study among mother-nurse daughter dyads in the Nurses' Health Study II and the Nurses' Mothers' Cohort. Mothers of participants completed questionnaires regarding their nurse daughter in 2001. PARTICIPANTS: 26,506 mother-nurse daughter dyads born between 1946 and 1964. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Body mass index (BMI) of the nurse daughter at age 18 and in 2001. RESULTS: At age 18, 561 (2.1%) daughters were obese (BMI>30), and in 2001, 5442 (22.0%) were obese. Adjusting for covariates, women whose mothers had a recalled pre-pregnancy BMI of 29 had a 6.1-fold increased risk of obesity at age 18 and a 3.4-fold risk of obesity in 2001, compared with women whose mothers had a pre-pregnancy BMI of 21. We found a U-shaped association between recalled GWG and offspring obesity. Compared with a maternal weight gain of 15-19 lb, GWG <10 lb was associated with a significant increase in obesity risk at age 18 (odds ratio (OR) 1.54, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.02-2.34) and in 2001 (OR 1.27, 95% CI 1.05-1.53). High weight gain (40+lb) was also associated with obesity risk at age 18 (OR 1.81, 95% CI 1.22-2.69) and in 2001 (OR 1.74, 95% CI 1.48-2.04). These associations were stronger among mothers who were overweight before pregnancy (P for interaction=0.03), and they persisted with adjustment for birth weight. CONCLUSION: A high recalled pre-pregnancy BMI and extremes of recalled GWG are associated with an increased risk of adolescent and adult obesity in offspring, particularly when the mother is overweight. Pre-pregnancy weight and GWG may be modifiable fetal origins of overweight and obesity in women.

Dietary boron and hormone replacement therapy as risk factors for lung cancer in women.

Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) may reduce lung cancer risk. Dietary boron may have actions similar to those of HRT; however, no previous study has reported the associations between dietary boron intake and lung cancer risk or the joint effects of boron intake and HRT use on lung cancer risk. The authors examined the associations between boron intake and the joint effects of boron intake and HRT on lung cancer risk in women. In an ongoing case-control study in Houston, Texas (July 1995 through April 2005, end date for this analysis), 763 women were diagnosed with lung cancer, and 838 were matched healthy controls with data on both diet and HRT. Multiple logistic regression analyses were conducted to assess the associations between dietary boron and HRT with lung cancer risk. After adjustment for potential confounders, the odds ratios for lung cancer with decreasing quartiles of dietary boron intake were 1.0, 1.39 (95% confidence interval (CI): 1.02, 1.90), 1.64 (95% CI: 1.20, 2.24), and 1.95 (95% CI: 1.42, 2.68) mg/day, respectively, for all women (p(trend) < 0.0001). In joint-effects analyses, compared with women with high dietary boron intake who used HRT, the odds ratio for lung cancer for low dietary boron intake and no HRT use was 2.07 (95% CI: 1.53, 2.81). Boron intake was inversely associated with lung cancer in women, whereas women who consumed low boron and did not use HRT were at substantial increased odds.

Association of early life factors and brain tumour risk in a cohort study.

Using population-based linked birth and cancer registry data, we investigated whether the risk of brain tumour in childhood (n=155) was associated with perinatal risk factors. This population-based cohort showed that being born into a larger family or to a mother with a history of miscarriage may increase childhood brain tumour risk.

Dietary carotenoids and vitamins A, C, and E and risk of breast cancer.

BACKGROUND: Data on intake of specific carotenoids and breast cancer risk are limited. Furthermore, studies of vitamins A, C, and E in relation to breast cancer risk are inconclusive. We have conducted a large, prospective study to evaluate long-term intakes of these nutrients and breast cancer risk. METHODS: We examined, by use of multivariate analysis, associations between intakes of specific carotenoids, vitamins A, C, and E , consumption of fruits and vegetables, and breast cancer risk in a cohort of 83234 women (aged 33-60 years in 1980) who were participating in the Nurses' Health Study. Through 1994, we identified 2697 incident cases of invasive breast cancer (784 premenopausal and 1913 postmenopausal). RESULTS: Intakes of beta-carotene from food and supplements, lutein/zeaxanthin, and vitamin A from foods were weakly inversely associated with breast cancer risk in premenopausal women. Strong inverse associations were found for increasing quintiles of alpha-carotene, beta-carotene, lutein/zeaxanthin, total vitamin C from foods, and total vitamin A among premenopausal women with a positive family history of breast cancer. An inverse association was also found for increasing quintiles of beta-carotene among premenopausal women who consumed 15 g or more of alcohol per day. Premenopausal women who consumed five or more servings per day of fruits and vegetables had modestly lower risk of breast cancer than those who had less than two servings per day (relative risk [RR] = 0.77; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.58-1.02); this association was stronger among premenopausal women who had a positive family history of breast cancer (RR = 0.29; 95% CI = 0.13-0.62) or those who consumed 15 g or more of alcohol per day (RR = 0.53; 95% CI = 0.27-1.04). CONCLUSIONS: Consumption of fruits and vegetables high in specific carotenoids and vitamins may reduce premenopausal breast cancer risk.

Breast cancer: factors associated with stage at diagnosis in black and white women. Black/White Cancer Survival Study Group.

BACKGROUND: Numerous studies have reported differences in cancer staging at diagnosis and in survival between Black and White patients with breast cancer. Utilizing data obtained from the National Cancer Institute's (NCI's) Black/White Cancer Survival Study for the period 1985-1986, a new study is presented here that systematically examines multiple explanatory factors (e.g., lack of mammograms) associated with these cancer-staging differences. PURPOSE: We evaluated within a single study the relationship of selected demographic, lifestyle, antecedent medical experiences, and health care access factors to cancer staging at diagnosis in Black and White breast cancer patients. METHODS: Data utilized in this population-based cohort study of 1222 eligible women (649 Black and 573 White) newly diagnosed for the period 1985-1986 with histologically confirmed primary breast cancer were obtained from the NCI's Black/White Cancer Survival Study. Sources of data included abstracts of hospital medical records, central review of histology slides by a study consultant pathologist, and patient interviews obtained from three metropolitan areas: Atlanta, New Orleans, and San Francisco-Oakland. Within each area, 70% of all Black incident cases were randomly selected, and a sample of White cases, frequency matched by age groups (20-49 years, 50-64 years, and 65-79 years), was selected for comparison. Stage of breast cancer at diagnosis was classified according to the international tumor-lymph node-metastases (TNM) system. Statistical models utilized in this study included the log-linear and polychotomous logistic regression with multiple predictor variables. RESULTS: Factors associated with cancer staging were differentially expressed in Blacks and Whites. Indicators of access to health care, a lack of mammograms, and an increased body mass index significantly (P < .02) contributed to stage differences in Blacks, whereas income was marginally associated (P = .06) with stage for Whites only. Nuclear grade, having a breast examination by a physician, and a history of patient delay explained approximately 50% of the excess risk for stage III-IV cancer versus stage I-IIN0 cancer among Blacks compared with Whites (odds ratio reduction from 2.19 to 1.68). CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that no single factor or group of factors can explain more than half of the race-stage differences noted in this study with respect to Black and White breast cancer patients.

Cyclic changes in lipoprotein and apolipoprotein levels during the menstrual cycle in healthy premenopausal women on a controlled diet.

Lipoprotein, apolipoprotein (apo), and hormone levels were measured in 12 healthy women over three consecutive menstrual cycles, one free-living and two under controlled dietary conditions. Serum hormone levels were measured to identify menstrual cycle phases (menses, early follicular, late follicular, and midluteal). After stabilization for one cycle on the controlled diet, ANOVA modeling of the second controlled-diet cycle revealed that low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels in the midluteal phase were significantly lower (by 7%) than in the early follicular phase. High-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol levels during the late follicular phase were higher (by 6%) than menses levels. Differences in the HDL-cholesterol and apoA-I fluctuations resulted in a higher proportion of HDL-cholesterol to apoA-I during the late follicular phase than that during the menses phase. The ratios of LDL cholesterol/HDL cholesterol and apoB/apoA-I in the early follicular phase were greater by 5.6% and 6.0%, respectively, than those in the midluteal phase. Fluctuations in total cholesterol, triglyceride, apoA-I, and apoB did not reach significance. Thus, the cyclic fluctuations of LDL and HDL cholesterol need to be considered in the screening and medical monitoring of women with borderline lipoprotein levels, as well as in the design and the interpretation of results of studies involving premenopausal women.

Exclusive breast-feeding of newborns among married women in the United States: the National Natality Surveys of 1969 and 1980.

Questions about infant feeding practices after birth were included in 1969 and 1980 National Natality Surveys (NNS). At 3-6 mo postpartum, NNS questionnaires were mailed to mothers of live infants born in wedlock, and responses were weighted to permit national estimates. Based on the NNS, the proportion of women who were exclusively breast-feeding newborns in the United States was significantly lower in 1969 (19% of white women, 9% of black women) compared with 1980 (51% of white women, 25% of black women). In 1969, the highest percentages of exclusive breast-feeding were observed among white women less than or equal to 34 yr, of parity less than or equal to 3 and greater than 7, and of higher than lower socioeconomic groups; and among black women greater than or equal to 30 yr, of parity greater than or equal to 4, and of lower than higher socioeconomic groups. Among women in both races in 1980, more primiparae than multiparae and the more highly educated were breast-feeding. More white than black women exclusively breast-fed within each birthweight and each sociodemographic characteristic in 1980; therefore, the racial differences remained across these factors. These findings are compared with results of the Ross Laboratories surveys of infant feeding.

Maternal anthropometry and infant feeding practices in Israel in relation to growth in infancy: the North African Infant Feeding Study.

Relations between maternal anthropometric status during pregnancy and infant feeding practices and growth from birth through the first 6 mo of life were examined in a cohort of 351 Israeli mother-infant pairs of North African descent. Maternal weight, height, and triceps skinfold thicknesses were determined at 6 and 9 mo of pregnancy, while infants' weights and lengths were measured at birth and at 1, 2, 3, and 6 mo of age with concurrent collection of age-specific maternal-reported infant feeding data. On the basis of multiple-linear-regression analysis that adjusted for potential covariates, mean maternal weight at the first prenatal visit and at 6 and 9 mo of pregnancy were positively associated with birth length (P for trend in all cases < 0.0001) and with linear growth between birth and 1, 3, and 6 mo of age. Maternal skinfold thickness at 9 mo of pregnancy and maternal height were also significantly associated with birth length. Moreover, maternal height, weight, and skinfold thickness at 6 and 9 mo of pregnancy were positively associated with mean birth weight. After adjustment for morbidity in the past month and other covariates, infants breast-fed exclusively had greater attained weight and weight gain in the first 3 mo compared with infants who were bottle-fed exclusively, breast-fed and bottle-fed, or solid-fed exclusively. These findings underscore the need for programs that improve the nutritional status of women before, during, and after pregnancy, and encourage exclusive breast-feeding of infants for at least the first 3 mo of life.

PIP: The associations between maternal anthropometric measures during pregnancy and infant feeding practices and growth in the first 6 months of life were investigated in a cohort of 351 mother-infant pairs of North African (Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, or Libya) descent but currently residing in Israel's Negev region. Mean maternal weight at the first prenatal visit and at 6 and 9 months of pregnancy was significantly and positively associated with birth length and with linear growth between birth and 1, 3, and 6 months of age. Maternal skinfold thickness at 9 months of pregnancy and maternal height also were significantly associated with birth length, while maternal height, weight, and skinfold thickness at 6 and 9 months of pregnancy were positively associated with mean birth weight. The rate of exclusive breast feeding declined from 34% at 1 month to 18% at 2 months to 6% at 3 months. After adjustment for covariates such as morbidity in the preceding month, maternal anthropometric status, and socioeconomic factors, infants who were exclusively breast-fed had greater attained weight and weight gain in the first 3 months of life than their counterparts who were exclusively bottle-fed, breast- and bottle-fed, or solid-fed. These findings underscore the importance of programs that improve the nutritional status of women before, during, and after pregnancy and promote exclusive breast feeding for at least the first 3 months.

The Pima infant feeding study: the role of sociodemographic factors in the trend in breast- and bottle-feeding.

In 1978, a retrospective study of the influence of sociodemographic factors on the trend in breast- and bottle-feeding was conducted among a sample of Pima Indian women 15 to 44 yr old residing on the Gila River Reservation. Based on interviews with 257 Pima Indian women about their infant feeding experiences, the proportion of women who breast-fed dropped significantly between 1949 and 1977. The decline in breast-feeding was evident among women aged 35 to 44 in 1978 across three socioeconomic strata, while women aged 30 to 34 experienced an increase in breast-feeding across two socioeconomic strata. Between 1949 and 1963, women of 50 to 100 and 100% Pima Indian descent breast-fed significantly less than those with other tribal affiliations; however, the influence of tribal descent was reduced thereafter. Bottle-feeding was more prevalent in the high birth orders over time. Among women with first births before 1963, those with small families bottle-fed more than those with large families across birth order. Conversely, among women with first births during or after 1963, those with large families bottle-fed more than those with small families across birth order.

Overweight adults in the United States: the behavioral risk factor surveys.

Using data on 19,405 adults from telephone interviews across the US, 1981-1983, we examined the sociodemographic characteristics, health-risk behaviors, body image, and dieting of overweight adults classified by the 1959 Metropolitan Life Insurance tables for weight and height. By self-report, 23% were overweight vs 29% in 1960-62. This modest decline in overweight remained after age-adjusting the 1981-1983 rate to the 1960 population. In 1981-1983, more blacks and Hispanics than whites were overweight [rate ratio (RR) = 1.43]. After adjustment for age and education, more over- than average-weight adults had uncontrolled hypertension, were binge drinking, and had a sedentary lifestyle. Among overweight men and women, 72% and 52%, respectively, were not dieting. Overweight adults acknowledging they were overweight were dieting more often than those without this perception (RR = 1.53). Results are discussed in light of research documenting weight gain and overweight as independent risk factors for cardiovascular disease incidence and mortality.

Conjunctival impression cytology (CIC) to detect subclinical vitamin A deficiency: comparison of CIC with biochemical assessments.

By use of sensitivity and specificity analysis, conjunctival impression cytology (CIC) was compared with fasting serum vitamin A levels and relative dose response (RDR) of Guatemalan children. One impression was taken from the temporal bulbar aspect of each eye, fasting serum vitamin A levels were then drawn, 480 RE of oil-based retinyl palmitate was given, and a 5-h postdosing vitamin A level was drawn (RDR procedure). For a 20% RDR cutoff, the sensitivity of CIC was 23% with a specificity of 80% and a positive predictive value of 9% (n = 213 children). Compared with fasting vitamin A levels alone (with 0.70 mumol/L as abnormal), the sensitivity of CIC was 26%, specificity was 81%, and positive predictive value was 22% (n = 221 children). There was no significant difference in the mean serum retinol level between those with abnormal and normal CIC. In this study population CIC does not identify the same group of children with marginal vitamin A as identified biochemically.

Effect of menstrual cycle phase on the concentration of individual carotenoids in lipoproteins of premenopausal women: a controlled dietary study.

Because premenopausal women experience cyclic fluctuations of plasma carotenoids and their lipoprotein carriers, it is hypothesized that carotenoid concentrations in lipoprotein fractions fluctuate by phase of the menstrual cycle. Nine women ate a standard set of carotenoid-rich foods daily for two cycles under isoenergetic conditions. In the second cycle, hormones and carotenoids in lipoprotein fractions were measured in the early and late follicular and luteal phases. alpha-Carotene concentrations in the LDL fraction were lower in the early than in the late follicular phase (P = 0.03) on the basis of regression analysis. beta-carotene concentrations in the LDL fraction and the HDL2 subfraction were higher in the late follicular than in the luteal phase (P = 0.02 and P = 0.04, respectively). Lutein/zeaxanthin concentrations in the LDL and HDL fractions were higher in the late follicular than in the luteal phase (P = 0.03 and P = 0.02, respectively). In each phase, 80% of alpha-carotene, 82% of beta-carotene, 85% of lycopene, and 64% of lutein/zeaxanthin were distributed in the LDL fraction. Among the hydrocarbon cartenoids, 18% of alpha-carotene and of beta-carotene and 13% of lycopene were distributed in the HDL fraction, with slightly more in the HDL2 than in the HDL3 subfraction. In contrast 34% of lutein/zeaxanthin was distributed in the HDL fraction with more concentrated in the HDL3 than in the HDL2 subfraction. Less than 4% of any carotenoid was found in the VLDL + IDL (intermediate-density-lipoprotein) fractions. Thus, the hydrocarbon carotenoids were highly concentrated in the LDL fraction and xanthophyll was more evenly distributed in the LDL and HDL fractions. The cyclic fluctuations of these carotenoids in lipoprotein fractions add another dimension to the understanding of their transport and physiologic function.

Undernutrition among Bedouin Arab infants: the Bedouin Infant Feeding Study.

Two hundred seventy-four healthy Bedouin Arab newborns in 1981 were followed for 18 mo to examine the relationship between infant-feeding practices and growth during planned social change. Although wasting was not prevalent, the prevalence rate of stunting (less than or equal to -2 SDs) increased from 12% to 19% to 32% at 6, 12, and 18 mo, respectively. After multiple-logistic-regression adjustment for covariates, the odds ratio (OR) of stunting at 6 mo was reduced among infants breast-fed only or fed with supplement compared with weaned infants. Infant-feeding practices were not associated with stunting in later infancy; however, those stunted at 6 mo had an OR of 13 of stunting at 12 mo and those stunted at 12 mo had an OR of 14 of stunting at 18 mo. In a multiple-linear-regression analysis, seasonality, duration of breast-feeding, hospitalized morbidity, and residual of height at 6 mo were negatively associated with daily average linear growth from 6 to 12 mo; these factors only explained 12% of the variation in daily linear growth.

The fluctuation of plasma carotenoid concentrations by phase of the menstrual cycle: a controlled diet study.

This is the first controlled diet study to examine the fluctuation of plasma carotenoids, lipoproteins, and serum hormone concentrations by phase of the menstrual cycle. Nonsmoking, premenopausal women (n = 12) with confirmed ovulatory cycles were given a standard diet with 10 mg total carotenoids/d for two cycles under isoenergetic conditions. Blood was drawn for simultaneous measurement of carotenoids, lipoproteins, and hormones on menses days 1-2, 4-6, 11 through 1 d after the luteinizing hormone surge, and 7-8 d after the surge, representing the menses, early and late follicular, and midluteal phases, respectively. Regression modeling with adjustment for plasma cholesterol concentrations was used to compare mean individual and total plasma carotenoid concentrations by phase of the cycle. Plasma carotenoid concentrations were at their lowest at menses and significantly higher thereafter, except for alpha-carotene. Compared with plasma concentrations at menses, beta-carotene peaked (increased by 9%, P = 0.01) in the late follicular phase. Plasma lutein/zeaxanthin and anhydrolutein concentrations were higher by 8-11% (P < or = 0.006) and by 15-31% (P < or = 0.02), respectively, during the last three phases. Plasma lycopene and phytofluene concentrations peaked (increased by 12%, P = 0.004; and by 21%, P = 0.006, respectively) at the midluteal phase. This cyclic fluctuation may affect the estimation of the plasma carotenoid-disease relation in studies of premenopausal women.

The correlation between two dietary assessments of carotenoid intake and plasma carotenoid concentrations: application of a carotenoid food-composition database.

A newly available carotenoid food-composition database providing specific carotenoid values for > 2300 foods was linked to dietary data on 57 male nonsmokers to examine the association between dietary carotenoid intake and plasma carotenoid concentrations over 3 wk when free-living. Carotenoid intake was estimated from a food-frequency questionnaire (FFQ) and 7 d of food diaries with concurrent analysis of plasma carotenoid concentrations. After adjustment for energy intake, percentage of energy from alcohol, and plasma lipid concentrations, significant diet-plasma correlations for the FFQ and the food diaries (FD) included alpha-carotene (r = 0.29 and 0.43), beta-carotene (r = 0.36 FFQ only), beta-cryptoxanthin (r = 0.46 and 0.44), lutein (r = 0.44 FD only), and lycopene (r = 0.53 FD only). Dietary carotenoid intakes were associated with plasma carotenoid concentrations for all the carotenoids except for beta-carotene when food diaries were used whereas the diet-plasma correlation for the provitamin A carotenoids were consistently significant when the FFQ was used.

Undernutrition among Bedouin Arab children: a follow-up of the Bedouin Infant Feeding Study.

After 10 y of urban settlement, 680 Bedouin Arab children, who had had anthropometric assessment from birth (1981-1982) through early childhood, were reassessed in 1991-1992 to compare the rates of stunting in early and later childhood as well as to describe the factors influencing current height-for-age. Stunting had dropped from 32.7% at 18 mo to 7.2% at 10 y in the 1981 birth cohort and dropped from 17.5% at 9 mo to 8.2% at 9 y in the 1982 birth cohort. Based on a multiple-linear-regression analysis, height in early childhood and maternal height were statistically significantly and positively associated with current mean height-for-age in both cohorts. In the 1982 cohort socioeconomic status in early childhood was positively and current family size was negatively and significantly associated with current mean height-for-age. Thus, conditions that were present in early childhood had the largest influence on current height. In 1992, 10% and 6% of the infant siblings of the 1981 and 1982 cohorts, respectively, were stunted compared with 17% and 1% of the siblings aged 1-2 y of the respective cohorts. Therefore, the high rates of early childhood stunting in 1981-1982 appeared to be a birth cohort-specific phenomenon.

PIP: During 1991-1992 in Israel, researchers re-examined the anthropometric assessment of Bedouin children 9-10 years old, living in the Negev, whose anthropometric assessment was initially examined when they were 6-18 months old, to compare the rates of stunting in early and later childhood and to determine the factors affecting current height-for-age. For the 1981 birth cohort, stunting fell from 32.7% at 18 months to 7.2% at 10 years. The corresponding figures for the 1982 birth cohort were 17.5% at 9 months and 8.2% at 9 years. Thus, despite the social change and urban settlement the children experienced in the 10 year span, they still had some catch-up growth. Stunting among the siblings less than 2 years old of the 1991-1992 cohorts was much less common than stunting of the index children in early childhood in 1981 (17% vs. 44%), but not so in 1982 (14% vs. 11%). In 1992, the prevalence of stunting stood at 10% and 6% of siblings less than one year old of the 1981 and 1982 cohorts, respectively, while it was 17% and 1% for siblings 1-2 years old of the 1981 and 1982 cohorts, respectively. Maternal height and index child's height-for-age in early childhood were positively associated with current height-for-age in the 1981 cohort (p = 0.0001). They explained 33% of the variation in height-for-age. In the 1981 cohort, neither socioeconomic status (SES) in early childhood nor family size were associated with current height-for-age. Yet, in the 1982 cohort, both SES in early childhood and family size were associated with current height-for-age, SES positively (p = 0.04) and family size negatively (p = 0.03). Maternal height and height-for-age in early childhood were positively associated with current height-for-age (p = 0.002 and 0.0001, respectively). These 4 variables accounted for 34% of the variation in height-for-age in the 1982 cohort. These findings indicate that factors or conditions present in early childhood had the greatest impact on current height-for-age.

Conjunctival impression cytology: feasibility of a field trial to detect subclinical vitamin A deficiency.

Two hundred and thirty-six Guatemalan children aged 2-14 y were examined for subclinical vitamin A deficiency by use of conjunctival impression cytology (CIC). The feasibility of the technique and quality of a modified touch procedure were assessed. Neither lid speculum nor physical restraint in the form of a papoose board was used. The CIC technique was easily performed on children aged greater than 3 y but was more difficult among those less than or equal to 3 y. Laboratory processing of specimens is uncomplicated but interpretation may be problematic and requires clearly defined criteria of normal and abnormal cytology as well as careful standardization of readers.

Relationship between dietary intake and plasma concentrations of carotenoids in premenopausal women: application of the USDA-NCI carotenoid food-composition database.

The diet-plasma relationships for carotenoids were examined in a group of 98 nonsmoking premenopausal women who participated in the cross-sectional phase of the National Cancer Institute (NCI)-US Department of Agriculture (USDA) diet study on alcohol-hormone metabolism, 1988-90. With use of the newly developed USDA-NCI carotenoid food-composition database, the mean daily intakes of carotenoids were significantly higher when estimated from the food-frequency questionnaire (FFQ) than from the 7-d diet records. Lycopene (mean = 0.58 mmol/L), lutein plus zeaxanthin (mean = 0.46 mmol/L), and beta-carotene (mean = 0.34 mmol/L) were the major plasma carotenoids. After adjustment for body mass index, energy and alcohol intakes, and total plasma cholesterol concentration, the following significant correlation (P < 0.05) were observed between the diet record and the FFQ-estimated carotenoid intakes and their respective plasma concentrations: alpha-carotene (r = 0.58 vs 0.49), beta-carotene (r = 0.51 vs 0.49), beta-cryptoxanthin (r = 0.49 vs 0.36), lutein plus zeaxanthin (r = 0.31 vs 0.37), lycopene (r = 0.50 vs 0.26), and total carotenoids (r = 0.57 vs 0.49). These data indicate that plasma carotenoid concentrations are reflective of dietary intake, but the magnitude of the correlation varies depending on the specific carotenoid and on the dietary assessment tool.

Effect of alcohol consumption on plasma carotenoid concentrations in premenopausal women: a controlled dietary study.

This 6-mo controlled dietary study compared the effect of 30 g alcohol/d for three menstrual cycles with three alcohol-free cycles on plasma carotenoid concentrations in 18 nonsmoking, premenopausal women. Participants were randomly allocated within a crossover design to either phase and consumed approximately 6 mg total carotenoids/d under isoenergetic conditions. Blood was drawn during the third menstrual cycle of each alcohol phase. After adjustment for the mean daily specific carotenoid and energy intakes for each alcohol phase, the paired differences in mean plasma alpha- and beta-carotene concentrations were significantly higher by 19% (P = 0.027) and 13% (P = 0.034), respectively, during the alcohol-intake phase of the study. The paired difference in mean plasma lutein/zeaxanthin concentration was significantly lower by 17% (P = 0.031) when the participants consumed alcohol than when they did not. This is the first reported study in women to document the independent effect of alcohol on plasma carotenoid concentrations without the potential interaction of smoking under controlled dietary conditions.