Quantification of Silymarin in Silybi mariani fructus: Challenging the Analytical Performance of Benchtop vs. Handheld NIR Spectrometers on Whole Seeds.

The content of the flavonolignan mixture silymarin and its individual components (silichristin, silidianin, silibinin A, silibinin B, isosilibinin A, and isosilibinin B) in whole and milled milk thistle seeds (Silybi mariani fructus) was analyzed with near-infrared spectroscopy. The analytical performance of one benchtop and two handheld near-infrared spectrometers was compared. Reference analysis was performed with HPLC following a Soxhlet extraction (European Pharmacopoeia) and a more resource-efficient ultrasonic extraction. The reliability of near-infrared spectral analysis determined through partial least squares regression models constructed independently for the spectral datasets obtained by the three spectrometers was as follows. The benchtop device NIRFlex N-500 performed the best both for milled and whole seeds with a root mean square error of CV between 0.01 and 0.17%. The handheld spectrometer MicroNIR 2200 as well as the microPHAZIR provided a similar performance (root mean square error of CV between 0.01 and 0.18% and between 0.01 and 0.23%, respectively). We carried out quantum chemical simulation of near-infrared spectra of silichristin, silidianin, silibinin, and isosilibinin for interpretation of the results of spectral analysis. This provided understanding of the absorption regions meaningful for the calibration. Further, it helped to better separate how the chemical and physical properties of the samples affect the analysis. While the study demonstrated that milling of samples slightly improves the performance, it was deemed to be critical only for the analysis carried out with the microPHAZIR. This study evidenced that rapid and nondestructive quantification of silymarin and individual flavonolignans is possible with miniaturized near-infrared spectroscopy in whole milk thistle seeds.

Investigation of Water Interaction with Polymer Matrices by Near-Infrared (NIR) Spectroscopy.

The interaction of water with polymers is an intensively studied topic. Vibrational spectroscopy techniques, mid-infrared (MIR) and Raman, were often used to investigate the properties of water-polymer systems. On the other hand, relatively little attention has been given to the potential of using near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy (12,500-4000 cm-1; 800-2500 nm) for exploring this problem. NIR spectroscopy delivers exclusive opportunities for the investigation of molecular structure and interactions. This technique derives information from overtones and combination bands, which provide unique insights into molecular interactions. It is also very well suited for the investigation of aqueous systems, as both the bands of water and the polymer can be reliably acquired in a range of concentrations in a more straightforward manner than it is possible with MIR spectroscopy. In this study, we applied NIR spectroscopy to investigate interactions of water with polymers of varying hydrophobicity: polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), polyvinylchloride (PVC), polyoxymethylene (POM), polyamide 6 (PA), lignin (Lig), chitin (Chi) and cellulose (Cell). Polymer-water mixtures in the concentration range of water between 1-10%(w/w) were investigated. Spectra analysis and interpretation were performed with the use of difference spectroscopy, Principal Component Analysis (PCA), Median Linkage Clustering (MLC), Partial Least Squares Regression (PLSR), Multivariate Curve Resolution Alternating Least Squares (MCR-ALS) and Two-Dimensional Correlation Spectroscopy (2D-COS). Additionally, from the obtained data, aquagrams were constructed and interpreted with aid of the conclusions drawn from the conventional approaches. We deepened insights into the problem of water bands obscuring compound-specific signals in the NIR spectrum, which is often a limiting factor in analytical applications. The study unveiled clearly visible trends in NIR spectra associated with the chemical nature of the polymer and its increasing hydrophilicity. We demonstrated that changes in the NIR spectrum of water are manifested even in the case of interaction with highly hydrophobic polymers (e.g., PTFE). Furthermore, the unveiled spectral patterns of water in the presence of different polymers were found to be dissimilar between the two major water bands in NIR spectrum (νs + νas and νas + δ).

Principles and Applications of Miniaturized Near-Infrared (NIR) Spectrometers.

This review article focuses on the principles and applications of miniaturized near-infrared (NIR) spectrometers. This technology and its applicability has advanced considerably over the last few years and revolutionized several fields of application. What is particularly remarkable is that the applications have a distinctly diverse nature, ranging from agriculture and the food sector, through to materials science, industry and environmental studies. Unlike a rather uniform design of a mature benchtop FTNIR spectrometer, miniaturized instruments employ diverse technological solutions, which have an impact on their operational characteristics. Continuous progress leads to new instruments appearing on the market. The current focus in analytical NIR spectroscopy is on the evaluation of the devices and associated methods, and to systematic characterization of their performance profiles.

Insect Protein Content Analysis in Handcrafted Fitness Bars by NIR Spectroscopy. Gaussian Process Regression and Data Fusion for Performance Enhancement of Miniaturized Cost-Effective Consumer-Grade Sensors.

Future food supply will become increasingly dependent on edible material extracted from insects. The growing popularity of artisanal food products enhanced by insect proteins creates particular needs for establishing effective methods for quality control. This study focuses on developing rapid and efficient on-site quantitative analysis of protein content in handcrafted insect bars by miniaturized near-infrared (NIR) spectrometers. Benchtop (Büchi NIRFlex N-500) and three miniaturized (MicroNIR 1700 ES, Tellspec Enterprise Sensor and SCiO Sensor) in hyphenation to partial least squares regression (PLSR) and Gaussian process regression (GPR) calibration methods and data fusion concept were evaluated via test-set validation in performance of protein content analysis. These NIR spectrometers markedly differ by technical principles, operational characteristics and cost-effectiveness. In the non-destructive analysis of intact bars, the root mean square error of cross prediction (RMSEP) values were 0.611% (benchtop) and 0.545-0.659% (miniaturized) with PLSR, and 0.506% (benchtop) and 0.482-0.580% (miniaturized) with GPR calibration, while the analyzed total protein content was 19.3-23.0%. For milled samples, with PLSR the RMSEP values improved to 0.210% for benchtop spectrometer but remained in the inferior range of 0.525-0.571% for the miniaturized ones. GPR calibration improved the predictive performance of the miniaturized spectrometers, with RMSEP values of 0.230% (MicroNIR 1700 ES), 0.326% (Tellspec) and 0.338% (SCiO). Furthermore, Tellspec and SCiO sensors are consumer-oriented devices, and their combined use for enhanced performance remains a viable economical choice. With GPR calibration and test-set validation performed for fused (Tellspec + SCiO) data, the RMSEP values were improved to 0.517% (in the analysis of intact samples) and 0.295% (for milled samples).

Anharmonic DFT Study of Near-Infrared Spectra of Caffeine: Vibrational Analysis of the Second Overtones and Ternary Combinations.

Anharmonic quantum chemical calculations were employed to simulate and interpret a near-infrared (NIR) spectrum of caffeine. First and second overtones, as well as binary and ternary combination bands, were obtained, accurately reproducing the lineshape of the experimental spectrum in the region of 10,000-4000 cm-1 (1000-2500 nm). The calculations enabled performing a detailed analysis of NIR spectra of caffeine, including weak bands due to the second overtones and ternary combinations. A highly convoluted nature of NIR spectrum of caffeine was unveiled, with numerous overlapping bands found beneath the observed spectral lineshape. To properly reflect that intrinsic complexity, the band assignments were provided in the form of heat maps presenting the contributions to the NIR spectrum from various kinds of vibrational transitions. These contributions were also quantitatively assessed in terms of the integral intensities. It was found that the combination bands provide the decisively dominant contributions to the NIR spectrum of caffeine. The first overtones gain significant importance between 6500-5500 cm-1, while the second overtones are meaningful in the higher wavenumber regions, particularly in the 10,000-7000 cm-1 region. The obtained detailed band assignments enabled deep interpretation of the absorption regions of caffeine identified in the literature as meaningful for analytical applications of NIR spectroscopy focused on quantitative analysis of caffeine content in drugs and natural products.

Anharmonicity and Spectra-Structure Correlations in MIR and NIR Spectra of Crystalline Menadione (Vitamin K3).

Mid-infrared (MIR) and near-infrared (NIR) spectra of crystalline menadione (vitamin K3) were measured and analyzed with aid of quantum chemical calculations. The calculations were carried out using the harmonic approach for the periodic model of crystal lattice and the anharmonic DVPT2 calculations applied for the single molecule model. The theoretical spectra accurately reconstructed the experimental ones permitting for reliable assignment of the MIR and NIR bands. For the first time, a detailed analysis of the NIR spectrum of a molecular system based on a naphthoquinone moiety was performed to elucidate the relationship between the chemical structure of menadione and the origin of the overtones and combination bands. In addition, the importance of these bands during interpretation of the MIR spectrum was demonstrated. The overtones and combination bands contribute to 46.4% of the total intensity of menadione in the range of 3600-2600 cm-1. Evidently, these bands play a key role in shaping of the C-H stretching region of MIR spectrum. We have shown also that the spectral regions without fundamentals may provide valuable structural information. For example, the theoretical calculations reliably reconstructed numerous overtones and combination bands in the 4000-3600 and 2800-1800 cm-1 ranges. These results, provide a comprehensive origin of the fundamentals, overtones and combination bands in the NIR and MIR spectra of menadione, and the relationship of these spectral features with the molecular structure.

Near-Infrared Spectroscopy as a Rapid Screening Method for the Determination of Total Anthocyanin Content in Sambucus Fructus.

Elderberry (Sambucus nigra L., fructus) is a very potent herbal drug, deriving from traditional European medicine (TEM). Ripe elderberries are rich in anthocyanins, flavonols, flavonol esters, flavonol glycosides, lectins, essential oils, unsaturated fatty acids and vitamins. Nevertheless, unripe elderflower fruits contain a certain amount of sambunigrin, a toxic cyanogenic glycoside, whose concentration decreases in the ripening process. Therefore, quality assurance must be carried out. The standard method described in literature is the photometric determination (pH-differential method) of the total anthocyanin content (TAC) that is the highest when the berries are ripe. The drawback of the pH-differential method is the extensive sample preparation and the low accuracy of the method. Therefore, the goal of this publication was to develop a fast non invasive near-infrared (NIR) method for the determination of TAC in whole berries. TAC of elderberries was measured using pH-differentiation method where TAC values of 632.87 mg/kg to 4342.01 mg/kg were measured. Additionally, cyanidin-3-O-glucoside, cyanidin-3-O-sambubioside and cyanidin-3-O-sambubioside-5-O-glucoside which represent more than 98% of TAC in elderberry were quantified using ultra high performance liquid chromatography-multiple wavelength detection-ultra high resolution-quadrupole-time of flight-mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MWD-UHR-Q-TOF-MS) and their sum parameter was determined, ranging between 499.43 mg/kg and 8199.07 mg/kg. Using those two methods as reference, whole elderberries were investigated by NIR spectroscopy with the Büchi NIRFlex N-500 benchtop spectrometer. According to the constructed partial least squares regression (PLSR) models the performance was as follows: a relative standard deviation (RSDPLSR) of 13.5% and root mean square error of calibration (RMSECV/RMSEC) of 1.31 for pH-differentiation reference and a RSDPLSR of 12.9% and RMSECV/RMSEC of 1.28 for the HPLC reference method. In this study, we confirm that it is possible to perform a NIR screening for TAC in whole elderberries. Using quantum chemical calculations, we obtained detailed NIR band assignments of the analyzed compounds and interpreted the wavenumber regions established in PLSR models as meaningful for anthocyanin content. The NIR measurement turned out to be a fast and cost-efficient alternative for the determination of TAC compared to pH-differential method and UHPLC-MWD-UHR-Q-TOF-MS. Due to the benefit of no sample preparation and extraction the technology can be considered as sustainable green technology. With the above mentioned inversely proportional ratio of TAC to total amount of toxic cyanogenic glycosides, NIR proves to be a reliable screening method for the ideal harvest time with maximal content of TAC and lowest content of cyanogenic glycosides in elderberry.

Near-Infrared Spectroscopy in Bio-Applications.

Near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy occupies a specific spot across the field of bioscience and related disciplines. Its characteristics and application potential differs from infrared (IR) or Raman spectroscopy. This vibrational spectroscopy technique elucidates molecular information from the examined sample by measuring absorption bands resulting from overtones and combination excitations. Recent decades brought significant progress in the instrumentation (e.g., miniaturized spectrometers) and spectral analysis methods (e.g., spectral image processing and analysis, quantum chemical calculation of NIR spectra), which made notable impact on its applicability. This review aims to present NIR spectroscopy as a matured technique, yet with great potential for further advances in several directions throughout broadly understood bio-applications. Its practical value is critically assessed and compared with competing techniques. Attention is given to link the bio-application potential of NIR spectroscopy with its fundamental characteristics and principal features of NIR spectra.

Spectra-Structure Correlations in Isotopomers of Ethanol (CX3CX2OX; X = H, D): Combined Near-Infrared and Anharmonic Computational Study.

The effect of isotopic substitution on near-infrared (NIR) spectra has not been studied in detail. With an exception of few major bands, it is difficult to follow the spectral changes due to complexity of NIR spectra. Recent progress in anharmonic quantum mechanical calculations allows for accurate reconstruction of NIR spectra. Taking this opportunity, we carried out a systematic study of NIR spectra of six isotopomers of ethanol (CX3CX2OX; X = H, D). Besides, we calculated the theoretical spectra of two other isotopomers (CH3CD2OD and CD3CH2OD) for which the experimental spectra are not available. The anharmonic calculations were based on generalized vibrational second-order perturbation theory (GVPT2) at DFT and MP2 levels with several basis sets. We compared the accuracy and efficiency of various computational methods. It appears that the best results were obtained with B2PLYP-GD3BJ/def2-TZVP//CPCM approach. Our simulations included the first and second overtones, as well as binary and ternary combinations bands. This way, we reliably reproduced even minor bands in the spectra of diluted samples (0.1 M in CCl4). On this basis, the effect of isotopic substitution on NIR spectra of ethanol was accurately reproduced and comprehensively explained.

Distinct Difference in Sensitivity of NIR vs. IR Bands of Melamine to Inter-Molecular Interactions with Impact on Analytical Spectroscopy Explained by Anharmonic Quantum Mechanical Study.

Melamine (IUPAC: 1,3,5-Triazine-2,4,6-triamine) attracts high attention in analytical vibrational spectroscopy due to its misuse as a food adulterant. Vibrational spectroscopy [infrared (IR) and Raman and near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy] is a major quality control tool in the detection and quantification of melamine content. The physical background for the measured spectra is not interpreted in analytical spectroscopy using chemometrics. In contrast, quantum mechanical calculations are capable of providing deep and independent insights therein. So far, the NIR region of crystalline melamine has not been studied by quantum mechanical calculations, while the investigations of its IR spectra have remained limited. In the present work, we employed fully anharmonic calculation of the NIR spectrum of melamine based on finite models, and also performed IR spectral simulation by using an infinite crystal model-periodic in three dimensions. This yielded detailed and unambiguous NIR band assignments and revised the previously known IR band assignments. We found that the out-of-plane fundamental transitions, which are essential in the IR region, are markedly more sensitive to out-of-plane inter-molecular interactions of melamine than NIR transitions. Proper description of the chemical surrounding of the molecule of melamine is more important than the anharmonicity of its vibrations. In contrast, the NIR bands mostly arise from in-plane vibrations, and remain surprisingly insensitive to the chemical environment. These findings explain previous observations that were reported in IR and NIR analytical studies of melamine.

Rydberg transitions as a probe for structural changes and phase transition at polymer surfaces: an ATR-FUV-DUV and quantum chemical study of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) and its nanocomposite with graphene.

We investigated the surface (<50 nm) of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) and its nanocomposite with graphene by attenuated total reflection far- and deep-ultraviolet (ATR-FUV-DUV; 145-300 nm; 8.55-4.13 eV) spectroscopy and quantum mechanical calculations. The major absorption of polymers occurs in FUV and is related to Rydberg transitions. ATR-FUV-DUV spectroscopy allows for direct measurements of these transitions in the solid phase. Using ATR-FUV-DUV spectroscopy, periodic density functional theory (DFT) and time-dependent DFT (TD-DFT), we explained the origins of the FUV-DUV absorption of PHB and provided insights into structural changes of PHB which occur upon formation of a graphene nanocomposite and upon heating of the pure polymer. The structural changes cause specific and gradual spectral variations in FUV-DUV. We systematically studied the relaxation of the polymer helix and concluded that the common feature of all models of the unfolded helix lies in a specific and consistent FUV-DUV spectral signature. Relaxed structures feature a blue-shift of the major FUV transition (non-bonding molecular orbital to Rydberg 3p and π to π*) as compared with crystalline PHB. The FUV absorption of the relaxed structures was determined to be significantly stronger than that of the crystalline state. These results are consistent with the observed temperature-dependent spectra of the pure PHB. The simulation of the thermal expansion of the crystalline polymer by a periodic-DFT study allows us to exclude the possibility that spectral variations observed experimentally are influenced by changes in the crystalline phase. We concluded that the crystallinity of PHB at the sample surface increases with an increase in graphene content in the nanocomposite. However, it is unlikely that the polymer structure inside the crystal is affected; instead the FUV-DUV spectral variations result from changes in the polymer morphology that occur at the sample surface. The phase transition of PHB is affected by temperature and addition of graphene content. These changes are likely to be the opposite of those occurring in the bulk sample.

Temperature Drift of Conformational Equilibria of Butyl Alcohols Studied by Near-Infrared Spectroscopy and Fully Anharmonic DFT.

Conformational isomerism of aliphatic alcohols with respect to the internal rotation of C-O(H) group and its impact on near-infrared (NIR) spectra has been known in the literature. However, no attempt has ever been made to investigate systematically whether and how the conformational flexibility of the aliphatic chain determines the observed NIR data of aliphatic alcohols. In the present study NIR spectra of four kinds of butyl alcohols, 1-butanol, 2-butanol, isobutanol, and tert-butyl alcohol, were investigated in diluted (0.1 M) CCl4 solutions. The experimental NIR spectra of butyl alcohols were accurately reproduced and explained in a fully anharmonic DFT study by means of generalized second-order vibrational perturbation theory (GVPT2). Entire conformational populations were taken into account in each case. On the basis of the theoretical study, influences of conformational flexibility with respect to internal rotations not only about the C-O bond, but also about the C-C bonds have been well evidenced in the experimental spectra. The conformational isomerism affects significantly the shape of NIR spectra. The temperature-dependent NIR spectra of butyl alcohols show changes in the band shape and a blue-shift of the overtone band due to the stretching mode of free OH group, and its intensity decreases with increasing temperature. These effects can be closely monitored by two-dimensional correlation spectroscopy (2D-COS). In this work, the experimental 2D-COS patterns have been successfully reproduced, based on DFT calculated NIR spectra of conformational isomers of the studied molecules and their Boltzmann coefficients over the corresponding temperature range. Thus, the experimentally observed effects are fully reflected in the DFT study, which leads to the conclusion that the main factor in the temperature-dependent spectral changes of 2νOH band of aliphatic alcohols in the diluted phase, where no self-association occurs, is played by the changes in the relative population of their conformational isomers.

Spectroscopic and Quantum Mechanical Calculation Study of the Effect of Isotopic Substitution on NIR Spectra of Methanol.

In this work, we studied methanol and its deuterated derivatives (CH3OH, CH3OD, CD3OH, CD3OD) by NIR spectroscopy and anharmonic quantum chemical calculations. Vibrational bands corresponding to up to three quanta transitions (first and second overtones, binary and ternary combination modes) were predicted by the use of the VPT2 route. The accuracy of prediction of NIR modes was evaluated through density functional theory (DFT) with selected density functionals and basis sets. On the basis of the theoretical NIR spectra, detailed band assignments for all studied molecules were proposed. It was found that the pattern of bands in NIR spectra of deuterated methanols can be used for identification of isotopically equalized forms. Calculations of NIR spectra of all possible forms of CXXXOX (X = H, D) molecules demonstrated that the isotopic contamination can be identified due to a coexistence of bands specific to OH and OD groups. Also, bands from partially deuterated methyl groups can be distinguished in NIR spectra. Since the VPT2 framework is known to be sensitive to inaccuracy in the case of highly anharmonic modes, we obtained an independent insight by numerical solving of the time-independent Schrödinger equation corresponding to the O-X stretching mode scanned within -0.4 to 2.0 Å over a dense grid of 0.005 Å. This way the energies of vibrational levels of the CX1X2X3OX4 (X = H, D) isotopomers and the corresponding transition frequencies were obtained with high accuracy (<0.1 cm-1). The change in normal coordinate influences the reduced mass of the oscillator and thus its frequency. Our results lead to a conclusion that the effect of deuterization of the methyl group introduces a very specific and consistent frequency shift of the first overtone of the O-X stretching mode depending on the substitution of X1, X2, or X3 positions (<2 cm-1). However, the pattern of this shift is not reproduced accurately and is also largely overestimated by VPT2 calculations.

Correlations between Structure and Near-Infrared Spectra of Saturated and Unsaturated Carboxylic Acids. Insight from Anharmonic Density Functional Theory Calculations.

By near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy and anharmonic density functional theory (DFT) calculations, we investigate five kinds of saturated and unsaturated carboxylic acids belonging to the group of short-chain fatty acids: propionic acid, butyric acid, acrylic acid, crotonic acid, and vinylacetic acid. The experimental NIR spectra of these five kinds of carboxylic acids are reproduced by quantum chemical calculations in a broad spectral region of 7500-4000 cm-1 and for a wide range of concentrations. By employing anharmonic GVPT2 calculations on DFT level, a detailed interpretation of experimental spectra is achieved, elucidating structure-spectra correlations of these molecules in the NIR region. We emphasize the spectral features due to saturated and unsaturated alkyl chains, the location of a C═C bond within the alkyl chain, and the dimerization of carboxylic acids. In particular, the existence of a terminal C═C bond leads to the appearance of highly specific NIR bands. These pronounced bands are located at wavenumbers where no overlapping with other structure-specific bands occurs, thus making them good structural markers. Most of the spectral differences between these two groups of molecules remain subtle, and would be difficult to reliably ascribe without quantum chemically calculated NIR spectra. Moreover, anharmonic DFT calculations provide insights on the manifestation of hydrogen bonding through distinctive spectral features corresponding to cyclic dimers. The resulting spectral baseline elevation is common for all five investigated carboxylic acids, and remains consistent with previous results on acetic acid.

Influence of Non-fundamental Modes on Mid-infrared Spectra: Anharmonic DFT Study of Aliphatic Ethers.

Fundamental and non-fundamental vibrational modes, first overtones, and binary combination modes of selected aliphatic ethers (di-n-propylether, di-iso-propylether, n-butylmethyl ether, n-butylethyl ether, di-n-butyl ether, tert-buytlmethyl ether, and tert-amylmethyl ether) were modeled in a fully anharmonic generalized second-order vibrational perturbation theory (GVPT2) approach on the DFT-B2PLYP/SNST level. The modeling procedure of theoretical line shapes took into account conformational isomers of studied molecules. The calculated spectra of the above ethers were compared to the corresponding experimental spectra in the infrared (IR) region (4000-560 cm-1) of the absorption index k(ν) derived from the neat liquid thin-film transmission data. It was found that IR spectra of aliphatic ethers are heavily influenced by the bands originating from non-fundamental modes, particularly from the combination modes in the C-H stretching region (3200-2800 cm-1). Because of the effects of vibrational resonances, the intensities of overtones and combination bands originating from methyl and methylene deformation modes increase sufficiently to influence the experimental line shape in this region. Less significant contributions from non-fundamental vibrational modes were noticed in the lower IR region (1600-560 cm-1), particularly in the vicinity of the C-O stretching band. The 2700-1600 cm-1 region, which is rich in weak bands due to non-fundamental vibrations, was reproduced accurately as well. It was concluded that a fully anharmonic approach allows significantly more accurate reproduction of the complex IR line shapes, particularly in the C-H stretching region of aliphatic ethers. On the basis of the achieved agreement between the experimental and calculated spectra, it may be concluded that the anharmonic GVPT2 method can adequately reproduce the anharmonic effects and vibrational resonances in particular, influencing the IR spectra of aliphatic ethers. The results obtained in this study show that the non-fundamental modes may play a significant role in shaping the IR spectra of aliphatic ethers and similar molecules in the neat liquid phase.

Performance of benchtop and portable spectroscopy equipment for discriminating Iberian ham according to breed.

Iberian ham is a highly appreciated product and according to Spanish legislation different labels identify different products depending on the genetic purity. Consequently, "100% Iberian" ham from purebred Iberian animals is more expensive than "Iberian" ham from Iberian x Duroc crosses. The hypothesis of this study was that to avoid labelling fraud it is possible to distinguish the breed (Iberian or Iberian x Duroc) of acorn-fed pigs of Iberian ham without any prior preparation of the sample by using spectroscopy that is a rapid and reliable technology. Moreover, portable devices which can be used in situ could provide similar results to those of benchtop equipment. Therefore, the spectra of the 60 samples (24 samples of 100% Iberian ham and 36 samples of Iberian x Duroc crossbreed ham) were recorded only for the fat, only for the muscle, or for the whole slice with two benchtop near-infrared (NIR) spectrometers (Büchi NIRFlex N-500 and Foss NIRSystem 5000) and five portable spectrometers including four portable NIR devices (VIAVI MicroNIR 1700 ES, TellSpec Enterprise Sensor, Thermo Fischer Scientific microPHAZIR, and Consumer Physics SCiO Sensor), and one RAMAN device (BRAVO handheld). The results showed that, in general, the whole slice recording produced the best results for classification purposes. The SCiO device showed the highest percentages of correctly classified samples (97% in calibration and 92% in validation) followed by TellSpec (100% and 81%). The SCiO sensor also showed the highest percentages of success when the analyses were performed only on lean meat (97% in calibration and 83% in validation) followed by microPHAZIR (84% and 81%), while in the case of the fat tissue. Raman technology showed the best discrimination capacity (96% and 78%) followed by microPHAZIR (89% and 81%). Therefore, spectroscopy has proved to be a suitable technology for discriminating ham samples according to breed purity; portable devices have been shown to give even better results than benchtop spectrometers.

Analyzing the Quality Parameters of Apples by Spectroscopy from Vis/NIR to NIR Region: A Comprehensive Review.

Spectroscopic methods deliver a valuable non-destructive analytical tool that provides simultaneous qualitative and quantitative characterization of various samples. Apples belong to the world's most consumed crops and with the current challenges of climate change and human impacts on the environment, maintaining high-quality apple production has become critical. This review comprehensively analyzes the application of spectroscopy in near-infrared (NIR) and visible (Vis) regions, which not only show particular potential in evaluating the quality parameters of apples but also in optimizing their production and supply routines. This includes the assessment of the external and internal characteristics such as color, size, shape, surface defects, soluble solids content (SSC), total titratable acidity (TA), firmness, starch pattern index (SPI), total dry matter concentration (DM), and nutritional value. The review also summarizes various techniques and approaches used in Vis/NIR studies of apples, such as authenticity, origin, identification, adulteration, and quality control. Optical sensors and associated methods offer a wide suite of solutions readily addressing the main needs of the industry in practical routines as well, e.g., efficient sorting and grading of apples based on sweetness and other quality parameters, facilitating quality control throughout the production and supply chain. This review also evaluates ongoing development trends in the application of handheld and portable instruments operating in the Vis/NIR and NIR spectral regions for apple quality control. The use of these technologies can enhance apple crop quality, maintain competitiveness, and meet the demands of consumers, making them a crucial topic in the apple industry. The focal point of this review is placed on the literature published in the last five years, with the exceptions of seminal works that have played a critical role in shaping the field or representative studies that highlight the progress made in specific areas.

State of water in various environments: Aliphatic ketones. MIR/NIR spectroscopic, dielectric and theoretical studies.

This work provides new insight into the state of water in a series of aliphatic ketones. For our studies, we selected nine aliphatic ketones of different size and structure to examine the effect of various structural motifs on behavior of water in the mixtures. Our results reveal that conformational flexibility of aliphatic chains in the linear ketones allows for effective shielding of the carbonyl group, and this flexibility is the main reason for poor solubility of water. Hence, in the linear ketones molecules of water are involved mostly in ketone-water interactions, while the water-water interactions are rare. Higher solubility of water in the cyclic ketones allows for creation of clusters of water, where the molecules are in water-like environment. The temperature rise in wet cyclic ketones increases population of ketone-water interactions at the expense of the water-water ones, while in the linear ketones and 2,6-dimethylcyclohexanone at an elevated temperature there is an increase in the population of singly bonded water at the expense of the doubly bonded one. DFT calculations reveal that the substitution of cyclohexanone by a single methyl group does not affect the strength of the ketone-water interactions, while it has a significant impact on the solubility of water in the ketone. The most important conclusion from this study is that the accessibility of the carbonyl group is the most important factor determining the intermolecular interactions and solubility of water in aliphatic ketones.

In silico NIR spectroscopy - A review. Molecular fingerprint, interpretation of calibration models, understanding of matrix effects and instrumental difference.

Quantum mechanical calculations are routinely used as a major support in mid-infrared (MIR) and Raman spectroscopy. In contrast, practical limitations for long time formed a barrier to developing a similar synergy between near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy and computational chemistry. Recent advances in theoretical methods suitable for calculation of NIR spectra opened the pathway to modeling NIR spectra of various molecules. Accurate theoretical reproduction of NIR spectra of molecules reaching the size of long-chain fatty acids was accomplished so far. In silico NIR spectroscopy, where the spectra are calculated ab initio, provides substantial improvement in our understanding of the overtones and combination bands that overlap in staggering numbers and create complex lineshape typical for NIR spectra. This improves the comprehension of the spectral information enabling access to rich and detail molecular footprint, essential for fundamental research and useful in routine analysis by NIR spectroscopy and chemometrics. This review article summarizes the most recent accomplishments in the emerging field with examples of simulated NIR spectra of molecules reaching long-chain fatty acids and polymers. In addition to detailed NIR band assignments and new physical insights, simulated spectra enable innovative support in applications. Understanding of the difference in the performance observed between miniaturized NIR spectrometers and chemical interpretation of the chemometric models are noteworthy here. These new elements integrated into NIR spectroscopy framework enable a knowledge-based design of the analysis with comprehension of the processed chemical information.