Conflicts of Interest in the Assessment of Chemicals, Waste, and Pollution.

Pollution by chemicals and waste impacts human and ecosystem health on regional, national, and global scales, resulting, together with climate change and biodiversity loss, in a triple planetary crisis. Consequently, in 2022, countries agreed to establish an intergovernmental science-policy panel (SPP) on chemicals, waste, and pollution prevention, complementary to the existing intergovernmental science-policy bodies on climate change and biodiversity. To ensure the SPP's success, it is imperative to protect it from conflicts of interest (COI). Here, we (i) define and review the implications of COI, and its relevance for the management of chemicals, waste, and pollution; (ii) summarize established tactics to manufacture doubt in favor of vested interests, i.e., to counter scientific evidence and/or to promote misleading narratives favorable to financial interests; and (iii) illustrate these with selected examples. This analysis leads to a review of arguments for and against chemical industry representation in the SPP's work. We further (iv) rebut an assertion voiced by some that the chemical industry should be directly involved in the panel's work because it possesses data on chemicals essential for the panel's activities. Finally, (v) we present steps that should be taken to prevent the detrimental impacts of COI in the work of the SPP. In particular, we propose to include an independent auditor's role in the SPP to ensure that participation and processes follow clear COI rules. Among others, the auditor should evaluate the content of the assessments produced to ensure unbiased representation of information that underpins the SPP's activities.

Determination of subpicogram levels of airborne polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons for personal exposure monitoring assessment.

A method based on the use of GC coupled to Q-exactive Orbitrap mass spectrometry (GC-Orbitrap-MS) has been developed for the analysis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) at sub-picogram levels. Outdoor ambient air particulate matter (PM2.5) and standard reference materials (SRM2260a) were analyzed in full scan mode showing low instrumental uncertainties (1-22%) and high linearity over a wide concentration range (0.5 pg and 500 pg/µL). Good reproducibility was obtained compared to the use of conventional single quadrupole GC-MS of PM samples. The quantification limit of the GC-Orbitrap-MS method for full scan analysis of PAHs in outdoor ambient air PM samples was 0.5 pg/µL. This low limit allowed the analysis of PAHs in samples collected with low volumes (< 0.5 m3), such as punch samples from whole filters or filter strips from personal exposure monitoring equipment. PAHs were successfully analyzed in filter strips from real-time Aethalometer AE51 equivalent black carbon (eBC) analyzers used in urban and rural sites, and in personal exposure monitors of firefighters during prescribed burns. The correlations between PAHs and eBC in these analyses were very strong (r2 ≥ 0.93). However, the equations obtained reflected the dominance of different emission sources, such as traffic in urban areas, wood burning for domestic heating, or wildfires. The method reported here affords the analyses of PAHs in high precision studies of atmospheric PM samples, e.g., high frequency sampling of low volumes, affording personal exposure monitoring assessments.

Occupational and residential exposures to organophosphate and pyrethroid pesticides in a rural setting.

Organophosphate (OP) and pyrethroid pesticides (PYR) are extensively used in agriculture, resulting in higher exposures among farmworkers. The present study reports the occurrence of 8 urinary OP and PYR metabolites in a sample of farmworkers and residents from Sucs (n = 87), a rural township in North West Catalonia (Spain). The aim of the present study was to examine differences in urinary pesticide metabolite concentrations between occupationally-exposed (farmworkers; n = 45) and environmentally-exposed subjects (n = 42) and to assess the relationship between pesticide's exposures and occupational activities in a real-case scenario. Six OP and two PYR metabolites have been investigated, urine samples were extracted using SPE extraction and analyzed by UPLC-MS/MS. Three OP metabolites were commonly detectable in urine, namely TCPY (metabolite of chlorpyrifos), PNP (parathion) and DEAMPY (pirimiphos). Regarding pyrethroids, the two analyzed metabolites, 3-PBA and 4F-3-PBA, were detected in a high proportion of urine samples. Differences in concentrations between both groups were statistically significant for TCPY and 4F-3-PBA (Mann-Whitney U Test for independent groups, p < 0.05). In the case of TCPY, the concentrations were higher among the farmworkers, which is consistent with their occupational activity. The small differences found in DEAMPY, PNP, 3-PBA or even the significant higher concentrations of 4F-3-PBA among rural population suggest a general exposure to these compounds, even in those who do not carry an occupational activity. Specific personal protective equipment (PPE) among farmworkers, such as the use of gloves and mask during mixing, showed a decrease in the exposure levels, although the differences were not statistically significant. However, a positive association was found between the use of a cap during mixing (for PNP and 3-PBA) and during application (only for 3-PBA). However, this piece of cloth is mainly used for sun protection, and when not cleaned after the handling of pesticides, it might represent a continuous source of exposure through dermal contact. Farmworkers using tractors with cabin had statistically significant lower concentrations of DEAMPY than those using a tractor without cabin. The previous results suggest that occupational protections should be encouraged among farmworkers and other potential workers handling with pesticides.

Influence of gestational weight gain on the organochlorine pollution content of breast milk.

BACKGROUND: Transplacental transfer and breastfeeding are the main transport routes of organic pollutants into children at the beginning of life. Although pollutant transmission through these mechanisms primarily depends on the maternal pollution burden, its impact may be modulated by physiological effects. OBJECTIVES: We have examined whether gestational weight gain (GWG) exerts an influence on the content of lipophilic low volatile pollutants in breast milk. RESULTS: Colostrum from mothers from the INMA cohorts of Sabadell and Gipuzkoa (n = 256 and 119, respectively) with low GWG as defined by the Institute of Medicine (IOM) from the US National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine had significantly higher concentrations of polychlorobiphenyls (PCBs) and 4,4'-DDE than colostrum in mothers who gained weight within IOM recommendations or in those who exceeded this threshold. Statistically significant differences were also found in the colostrum:maternal serum ratios of these compounds. Women with low GWG retained higher pollutant amounts in colostrum. These observations are consistent with previously described higher concentrations of these pollutants in infant cord blood from mothers with low GWG by IOM standards. They indicate that mobilization of lipophilic organic pollutants by metabolic pregnant changes not only leads to higher fetal transfer but to higher accumulation into the mammary system upon low GWG. CONCLUSIONS: The present results show that insufficient GWG, besides increasing in utero exposure, also enhances pollutant transfer to infants during breastfeeding which considerably extends the significance of this physiological change for the pollutant children intake in early life.

Environmental and dietary determinants of metal exposure in four-year-old children from a cohort located in an industrial area (Asturias, Northern Spain).

Urine samples from four-year-old children located in a heavily industrialized zone in Asturias (Spain) were collected between 2009 and 2012 (n = 334). Vanadium (V; median 54 µg/g creatinine), cobalt (Co; 1.0 µg/g c.), nickel (Ni; 3.8 µg/g c.), copper (Cu; 22 µg/g c.), zinc (Zn; 590 µg/g c.), arsenic (As; 64 µg/g c.), selenium (Se; 49 µg/g c.), molybdenum (Mo; 110 µg/g c.), cadmium (Cd; 0.27 µg/g c.), antimony (Sb; 1.0 µg/g c.), cesium (Cs; 14 µg/g c.), barium (Ba; 2.6 µg/g c.), thallium (Tl; 0.55 µg/g c.) and lead (Pb; 1.9 µg/g c.) were analysed. Comparison with children from other sites showed that this Asturias cohort was characterized by high levels of V, As, Sb, Cs and Tl. The concentrations of Co, Ni, Zn, Cu, Mo, Se, Cd, Ba and Pb were within the range of other cohorts. Terrestrial dietary items were most strongly related to increased urinary concentrations of metals in children, e.g., red meat with Ba and Ni, pasta/cereal with Ni and Zn, sweets with Zn, Co, and Cu, eggs with Mo, Cd, and Cs, and dairy products with Co and Sb. Seafood was the second group of dietary items significantly related to increased metals, e.g., shellfish with Ba, Cs, Pb, and V, fatty fish with As, and lean fish with As and Se. In contrast, higher fruit intake was significantly associated with decreased Cu and Sb, and higher legume intake with decreased Cu, Se and Cs. Higher intakes of other dietary items also led to significant decreases in some metals, such as vegetables and lower concentrations of Se and Mo, and dairy products with decreases in Cu and As. These negative correlations implied very low concentrations of the mentioned metals in these foods. Higher exposure to traffic was associated with higher concentrations of Ba, present in brake components. Children living outside urban areas had higher concentrations of Se. No association of metals with smoking in the family was found.

Pilot study on the concentrations of organochlorine compounds and potentially toxic elements in pregnant women and local food items from the Finnish Lapland.

In the Arctic, main sources of persistent organic pollutants and potentially toxic elements are industry and agriculture in the lower latitudes. However, there are also local sources of pollution. Our study was focused on possible pollution in the Finnish Lapland, transferred from the Pechenganikel industrial complex located in the borders of Russia, Finland and Norway. Local food items and blood samples of pregnant women from the Inari municipality were collected and organochlorine compounds (OCs) and metal(oid)s analyzed. Most of the examined food samples showed detectable levels of these compounds. The mean concentrations of DDTs and polychlorobiphenyls (PCBs) were higher in fish (0.18-0.32 ng/g and 0.34-0.64 ng/g, respectively), than in the other food groups (0.027-0.047 ng/g and 0.11-0.20 ng/g, respectively). PCBs were found at the highest concentrations in blood samples of the pregnant women, and congeners 153 and 118 were dominant. The mean concentration of PCB153, 0.29 µg/kg serum lipid, was lower than those described in many other studies. Concerning DDTs, the 4,4'-DDT/4,4'-DDE ratio, 0.092, in the blood samples was lower than that observed in the food items, 0.25-0.71, reflecting old uses of the DDT pesticide. None of the observed levels of selected potentially toxic elements in blood samples and in food items exceeded the known safe limits. Higher concentrations of PCB52 and γ-HCH were observed in the serum of pregnant women who consumed greater amounts of meat, and berries and mushrooms, respectively. The OC concentrations from the pregnant women currently studied were lower than those observed fourteen years ago with pregnant women from the same municipality. Compounds whose occurrence is likely related to a long-distance transport showed clear decreases, e.g., 63% for PCBs, and for those from pesticides, decreases were 93% and 97% for 4,4'-DDE and ß-HCH, respectively. No obvious influence from the Pechenganikel complex is observed from the results.

Spread of SARS-CoV-2 in hospital areas.

We performed a systematic sampling and analysis of airborne SARS-CoV-2 RNA in different hospital areas to assess viral spread. Systematic air filtration was performed in rooms with COVID-19 infected patients, in corridors adjacent to these rooms, to rooms of intensive care units, and to rooms with infected and uninfected patients, and in open spaces. RNA was extracted from the filters and real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction was performed using the LightMix Modular SARS-CoV-2 E-gene. The highest occurrence of RNA was found in the rooms with COVID-19 patients (mean 2600 c/m3) and the adjacent corridor (mean 4000 c/m3) which was statistically significant more exposed (p < 0.01). This difference was related to the ventilation systems. As is commonly found in many hospitals, each of the rooms had an individual air inlet and outlet, while in the corridors these devices were located at the distance of every four rooms. There was a significant transfer of viruses from the COVID-19 patients' rooms to the corridors. The airborne SARS-CoV-2 RNA in the corridors of ICUs with COVID-19 patients or care rooms of uninfected patients were ten times lower, averages 190 c/m3 and 180 c/m3, respectively, without presenting significant differences. In all COVID-19 ICU rooms, patients were intubated and connected to respirators that filtered all exhaled air and prevented virus release, resulting in significantly lower viral concentrations in adjacent corridors. The results show that the greatest risk of nosocomial infection may also occur in hospital areas not directly exposed to the exhaled breath of infected patients. Hospitals should evaluate the ventilation systems of all units to minimize possible contagion and, most importantly, direct monitoring of SARS-CoV-2 in the air should be carried out to prevent unexpected viral exposures.

Serum concentrations of persistent organic pollutants mixture during pregnancy and anogenital distance in 8-year-old children from the INMA-Asturias cohort.

BACKGROUND: During pregnancy, women are commonly exposed to several endocrine-disrupting chemicals, including persistent organic pollutants (POPs). These compounds can transfer to the fetus through the placenta. Prenatal POP exposure is related to altered fetal genital and reproductive tract development. However, the relationship between exposure to POP mixtures and anogenital distance (AGD) is poorly investigated. This study investigated the association between prenatal exposure to POP mixtures and AGD in 8-year-old children. METHODS: Data were collected from the INMA-Asturias cohort. Maternal serum POP concentrations were measured during the first trimester of pregnancy. Anoscrotal distance (AGDAS) and anopenile distance (AGDAP) in males and anofourchetal distance (AGDAF) and anoclitoral distance (AGDAC) in females were recorded in 362 8-years-olds. Conventional linear regression, and the novel weighted quantile sum regression (WQSR) and Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR) models were applied to assess the relationships between AGD and POPs exposure stratified by sex. RESULTS: Among males, in the linear regression, b-hexachlorocyclohexane, PCB138, PCB153, and PCB180 were inversely associated with the anogenital index (AGI)AS (-0.06 mm/kg (95% confidence interval [CI]: -0.11, -0.02), -0.07 mm/kg (95% CI: -0.14, -0.01), -0.07 mm/kg (95% CI: -0.13, -0.01), and -0.08 mm/kg (95% CI: -0.14, -0.02), respectively). Among females, polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE)47 and PBDE154 were positively associated with increased AGIAF (0.02 mm/kg (95% CI: 0.00, 0.03) and 0.09 mm/kg (95% CI: 0.01, 0.17), respectively). BKMR confirmed these associations. WQSR found a negative combined effect of the POP mixture on AGD, and PCB138, PCB153, and PCB180 (weighted 0.18, 0.13, and 0.09, respectively) were identified as the most impacting chemicals. In females, WQSR found a positive combined effect and determined PBDE47 (weighted 0.35) as the most impacting. CONCLUSIONS: Maternal exposure to a POP mixture was negatively associated with AGD in male children and positively associated with AGD in female children, thus providing evidence of the adverse effects of POPs on genital development.

Monitoring temporal trends of dioxins, organochlorine pesticides and chlorinated paraffins in pooled serum samples collected from Northern Norwegian women: The MISA cohort study.

The ubiquitous presence of legacy and emerging persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in the environmental matrices poses a potential hazard to the humans and creating public health concerns. The present study aimed to evaluate dioxins, dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and chlorinated paraffins (CPs) concentrations in serum of women (postpartum, pregnant and non-pregnant) from Northern Norway to better understand their exposure and contamination status as well as temporal trends across 2007-2009 (MISA 1) to 2019 (MISA 2). Sixty-two blood samples from the MISA 1 cohort and 38 samples from MISA 2 were randomly selected in this study (n = 100). Ninety samples from postpartum (MISA 1) and pregnant women (MISA 2) were randomly combined into 9 pools, with 9-11 individual samples contributing to each pool keeping the groups of pregnant and postpartum women. Remaining 10 samples from non-pregnant women (MISA 2) were allocated into separate group. Geometric mean, minimum and maximum were used to describe the serum concentrations of pooled POPs in MISA cohort. Mann-Whitney U test and independent sample t-test were applied for trend analysis of blood levels of POPs between MISA 1 and MISA 2. We found the serum concentrations of selected POPs in this study to be at lower range. Serum concentrations of dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) (p = 0.010), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) (p = 0.002), dioxins-like PCBs (p = 0.001), hexachlorobenzene (HCB) (p < 0.001) and p,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (p,p'-DDE) (p = 0.002) were decreased between the studied time. In contrast, the serum concentrations of medium chain chlorinated paraffins showed an increasing trend between 2007 and 2009 and 2019 (p = 0.019). Our findings report a particular concern of emerging contaminant medium chain chlorinated paraffin exposure to humans. Future observational studies with repeated measurements of chlorinated paraffins in general populations worldwide and large sample size are warranted.

Exposure to metal mixture and growth indicators at 4-5 years. A study in the INMA-Asturias cohort.

BACKGROUND: Exposure to toxic and non-toxic metals impacts childhood growth and development, but limited data exists on exposure to metal mixtures. Here, we investigated the effects of exposure to individual metals and a mixture of barium, cadmium, cobalt, lead, molybdenum, zinc, and arsenic on growth indicators in children 4-5 years of age. METHODS: We used urine metal concentrations as biomarkers of exposure in 328 children enrolled in the Spanish INMA-Asturias cohort. Anthropometric measurements (arm, head, and waist circumferences, standing height, and body mass index) and parental sociodemographic variables were collected through face-to-face interviews by trained study staff. Linear regressions were used to estimate the independent effects and were adjusted for each metal in the mixture. We applied Bayesian kernel machine regression to examine non-linear associations and potential interactions. RESULTS: In linear regression, urinary levels of cadmium were associated with reduced arm circumference (ßadjusted = -0.44, 95% confidence interval [CI]: -0.73, -0.15), waist circumference (ßadjusted = -1.29, 95% CI: -2.10, -0.48), and standing height (ßadjusted = -1.09, 95% CI: -1.82, -0.35). Lead and cobalt concentrations were associated with reduced standing height (ßadjusted = -0.64, 95% CI: -1.20, -0.07) and smaller head circumference (ßadjusted = -0.29, 95% CI: -0.49, -0.09), respectively. However, molybdenum was positively associated with head circumference (ßadjusted = 0.22, 95% CI: 0.01, 0.43). BKMR analyses showed strong linear negative associations of cadmium with arm and head circumference and standing height. BKMR analyses also found lead and cobalt in the metal mixture were related to reduce standing height and head circumference, and consistently found molybdenum was related to increased head circumference. CONCLUSION: Our findings suggest that exposure to metal mixtures impacts growth indicators in children.

Urinary cobalt and ferritin in four-years-old children.

Cobalt (Co) is an essential trace element but may cause toxic effects upon occupational or environmental exposure. The present study is aimed to determine the urine concentrations of Co in four years-old children in the INMA-Asturias cohort (Spain) and to assess the factors determining the observed levels. This cohort is located in a heavily industrialized zone with strong potential for metal exposure. Some diet components such as consumption of sweets were meaningfully associated with higher urine Co concentrations. Traffic pollution also showed a noteworthy positive association with Co levels. Family tobacco consumption did not show substantial association with the urine concentrations of this metal in the INMA-Asturias children. A significant inverse association between urine Co and venous blood ferritin was found. Iron deficiency anemic children had significantly higher concentrations of Co than those with normal levels, e.g. median values 1.9 µg/g creatinine and 1.0 µg/g creatinine, respectively. This association could be explained by an increased expression of DMT1, a divalent metal transporter that captures higher levels of iron in deficiency states of this metal. This transporter is non-specific and not only captures iron but also other divalent metals such as Co. The presence of this metal in iron deficiency anemic children may represent an additional disturbing health factor that must be considered during treatment.

Organophosphate metabolite concentrations in maternal urine during pregnancy.

The burden of organophosphate (OP) pesticides in pregnant women from Tarragona (n = 157), a Mediterranean area of intense agricultural activity, has been assessed from the study of hydroxylated organic metabolites in urine samples in the three trimesters of pregnancy. 2-Diethylamino-6-methylpyrimidin-4-ol (DEAMPY), a metabolite of pirimiphos, was the compound found in higher concentration, medians 0.66-2.8 µg/g creatinine. 4-Nitrophenol (PNP), a metabolite of parathion, medians 0.24-0.41 µg/g creatinine, was the second most abundant compound. 2-Isopropyl-6-methyl-4-pyrimidol (IMPY), a metabolite of diazinon, was also present but in lower concentrations. Except for DEAMPY, the concentrations found in this cohort were lower than those reported in studies from other countries. Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) were calculated for the compounds found in more than the 35% of the samples, the reliability between trimesters was poor (<0.40) to fair (0.40-0.60). Statistically significant differences were observed for the creatinine adjusted concentrations of the most abundant OP metabolites in these trimesters when examined with the Wilcoxon signed rank test for paired data. In general, no association was found between urinary OP metabolites and most demographic and lifestyle predictors. However, a positive significant association was observed for women with vegetarian diet and for women of higher economic status and eventual consumption of organic food which showed higher PNP concentrations. These results suggest that higher fruit and vegetable consumption may involve higher OP pesticide ingestion but the overall association was weak.

Changes of organochlorine compound concentrations in maternal serum during pregnancy and comparison to serum cord blood composition.

The concentrations of organochlorine compounds (OCs), including pentachlorobenzene, hexachlorobenzene (HCB), hexachlorocyclohexanes (α-, ß-, γ- and δ-HCH), polychlorobiphenyls (PCBs 28, 52, 101, 118, 138, 153 and 180), DDT and metabolites, were measured in maternal serum samples collected at the first trimester of pregnancy, at delivery and in umbilical cord from a cohort of mother-newborn pairs from Tarragona (Spain) (n = 50), representing general population of a Mediterranean area from Southern Europe. The observed concentrations were generally low in comparison with previous studies in other world areas. Higher OC concentrations were observed in the maternal serum collected at delivery than in the first trimester and the cord blood concentrations were lower than the maternal levels. These results show for the first time a small but statistically significant increase in maternal venous concentration of OCs between the first trimester and delivery when measured in ng/ml. HCB, ß-HCH and the PCB congeners in cord blood were significantly correlated with the concentrations of these compounds in maternal venous blood and the coefficients were stronger for the samples collected at delivery which was consistent with OC transfer from mother to foetus. In the case of DDT compounds, only 4,4'-DDT showed maternal-cord blood correlation which documented the low metabolic capacity of newborns for OC transformation, e.g. DDT into DDE. Maternal age was the most significant driver of the observed maternal venous OC concentrations in both periods, older ages involving higher concentrations. Higher body mass index was only significantly correlated with higher 4,4'-DDE concentrations in maternal venous blood and cord blood. In some cases, social class and education level were significantly correlated with OC concentrations, e.g. 4,4'-DDE in maternal venous blood from the first trimester and cord blood and PCB153 in maternal venous blood at delivery. In these cases, highest concentrations were found in the women with highest education level and most affluent social class. Comparison of the maternal OC concentrations of this cohort with those observed in 2002 in population of the same geographic area and age range shows decreases between two and ten times over this fourteen-year period.

Effects of flushing flows on the transport of mercury-polluted particulate matter from the Flix Reservoir to the Ebro Estuary.

Polluted sediments retained in water reservoirs are potential sources of deleterious materials downstream, especially during floods or flushing flows (FFs). Their interaction with these events is important for determining potential risks and evaluating management actions. In the Ebro River, the Flix Reservoir accumulated a deposit of more than 3 × 105 t of industrial waste with high Hg concentrations. Because suspended particulate matter (SPM) is the main driver of Hg pollution downriver, this study analyses the transport of particulate matter and Hg pollution from the Flix Reservoir to the Ebro Estuary during FFs. Time series of currents, turbidity and downward particulate matter fluxes were obtained by current meters, turbidimeters and sediment traps assembled in benthic tripods. They were deployed in the reservoir and at two locations in the estuary during two recording periods that each captured a flushing flow (FF) event. In addition, SPM samples were collected during the study period at several locations along the river course, from upstream of the Flix Reservoir down to the river mouth, to measure the suspended particulate matter and associated Hg mobilized downstream. A continuous background level of Hg pollution was observed during the deployment periods, but the Hg and particulate matter fluxes increased by between one and two orders of magnitude during FFs. Though the two events reached similar water discharges, the first FF was after the wet season and generated lower particulate matter concentrations and fluxes, but higher Hg contents than the second, which occurred after the dry season. The higher available particulate matter in the second event diluted the polluted Hg particle load more than the first event. Thus, similar FFs may result in different Hg concentration and sediment transport episodes, largely depending on the previous hydrological regime and the river sediment availability. These findings should be considered for FF management.

Vehicle interior air quality conditions when travelling by taxi.

Vehicle interior air quality (VIAQ) was investigated inside 14 diesel/non-diesel taxi pairs operating simultaneously and under normal working conditions over six weekday hours (10.00-16.00) in the city of Barcelona, Spain. Parameters measured included PM10 mass and inorganic chemistry, ultrafine particle number (N) and size, lung surface deposited area (LDSA), black carbon (BC), CO2, CO, and a range of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Most taxi drivers elected to drive with windows open, thus keeping levels of CO2 and internally-generated VOCs low but exposing them to high levels of traffic-related air pollutants entering from outside and confirming that air exchange rates are the dominant influence on VIAQ. Median values of N and LDSA (both sensitive markers of VIAQ fluctuations and likely health effects) were reduced to around 104 #/cm3 and < 20 µm2/cm3 respectively under closed conditions, but more than doubled with windows open and sometimes approached 105 #/cm3 and 240 µm2/cm3. In exceptional traffic conditions, transient pollution peaks caused by outside infiltration exceeded N = 106 #/cm3 and LDSA= 1000 µm2/cm3. Indications of self-pollution were implicated by higher BC and CO levels, and larger UFP sizes, measured inside diesel taxis as compared to their non-diesel pair, and the highest concentrations of CO (>2 ppm) were commonly associated with older, high-km diesel taxis. Median PM10 concentrations (67 µg/m3) were treble those of urban background, mainly due to increased levels of organic and elemental carbon, with source apportionment calculations identifying the main pollutants as vehicle exhaust and non-exhaust particles. Enhancements in PM10 concentrations of Cr, Cu, Sn, Sb, and a "High Field Strength Element" zircon-related group characterised by Zr, Hf, Nb, Y and U, are attributed mainly to the presence of brake-derived PM. Volatile organic compounds display a mixture which reflects the complexity of traffic-related organic carbon emissions infiltrating the taxi interior, with 2-methylbutane and n-pentane being the most abundant VOCs, followed by toluene, m-xylene, o-xylene, 1,2,4-trimethylbenzene, ethylbenzene, p-xylene, benzene, and 1,3,5-trimethylbenzene. Internally sourced VOCs included high monoterpene concentrations from an air freshener, and interior off-gassing may explain why the youngest taxi registered the highest content of alkanes and aromatic compounds. Carbon dioxide concentrations quickly climbed to undesirable levels (>2500 ppm) under closed ventilation conditions and could stay high for much of the working day. Taxi drivers face daily occupational exposure to traffic-related air pollutants and would benefit from a greater awareness of VIAQ issues, notably the use of ventilation, to encourage them to minimise possible health effects caused by their working environment.

Urinary metabolites of organophosphate and pyrethroid pesticides in children from an Italian cohort (PHIME, Trieste).

Urinary metabolites of organophosphate (OP) and pyrethroid (PYR) pesticides from seven years old children of a birth cohort study (n=199; PHIME cohort of Trieste, Italy) have been measured. Six OP and two PYR metabolites have been investigated, 2-diethylamino-6-methylpyrimidin-4-ol (DEAMPY, pirimiphos metabolite) was the one found at higher concentrations, median 3.4 ng/mL specific gravity adjusted (SG adjusted), followed by 4-nitrophenol (PNP, median 1.4 ng/mL SG adjusted) and 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol (TCPY, median 0.36 ng/mL SG adjusted), parathion and chlorpyriphos metabolites, respectively. TCPY concentrations were low in comparison to other distributions of OP metabolites in children from other studies. Accordingly, the PHIME cohort showed a distinct OP metabolite distribution with high concentrations of pirimiphos and parathion. Another specific characteristic of this cohort was the high concentration of 3-phenoxybenzoic acid (3-BPA, median 0.36 ng/mL SG adjusted), a general metabolite of PYR pesticides. Evaluation of anthropometric and socio-demographic characteristics of children and families only showed a positive association between family educational level and urinary concentrations of DEAMPY metabolite (p<0.05), which could reflect distinct dietary habits depending on the educational level. Estimated daily intakes were evaluated, all studied metabolites were found within safe levels.

Biomarkers of exposure in environment-wide association studies - Opportunities to decode the exposome using human biomonitoring data.

BACKGROUND: The European Union's 7th Framework Programme (EU's FP7) project HEALS - Health and Environment-wide Associations based on Large Population Surveys - aims a refinement of the methodology to elucidate the human exposome. Human biomonitoring (HBM) provides a valuable tool for understanding the magnitude of human exposure from all pathways and sources. However, availability of specific biomarkers of exposure (BoE) is limited. OBJECTIVES: The objective was to summarize the availability of BoEs for a broad range of environmental stressors and exposure determinants and corresponding reference and exposure limit values and biomonitoring equivalents useful for unraveling the exposome using the framework of environment-wide association studies (EWAS). METHODS: In a face-to-face group discussion, scope, content, and structure of the HEALS deliverable "Guidelines for appropriate BoE selection for EWAS studies" were determined. An expert-driven, distributed, narrative review process involving around 30 individuals of the HEALS consortium made it possible to include extensive information targeted towards the specific characteristics of various environmental stressors and exposure determinants. From the resulting 265 page report, targeted information about BoE, corresponding reference values (e.g., 95th percentile or measures of central tendency), exposure limit values (e.g., the German HBM I and II values) and biomonitoring equivalents (BEs) were summarized and updated. RESULTS: 64 individual biological, chemical, physical, psychological and social environmental stressors or exposure determinants were included to fulfil the requirements of EWAS. The list of available BoEs is extensive with a number of 135; however, 12 of the stressors and exposure determinants considered do not leave any measurable specific substance in accessible body specimens. Opportunities to estimate the internal exposure stressors not (yet) detectable in human specimens were discussed. CONCLUSIONS: Data about internal exposures are useful to decode the exposome. The paper provides extensive information for EWAS. Information included serves as a guideline - snapshot in time without any claim to comprehensiveness - to interpret HBM data and offers opportunities to collect information about the internal exposure of stressors if no specific BoE is available.

Assessment of analytical methods to determine pyrethroids content of bednets.

OBJECTIVE: To present and evaluate simple, cost-effective tests to determine the amount of insecticide on treated materials. METHODS: We developed and evaluated a competitive immunoassay on two different platforms: a label-free impedimetric biosensor (EIS biosensor) and a lateral flow. Both approaches were validated by gas chromatography (GC) and ELISA, gold standards for analytical methods and immunoassays, respectively. Finally, commercially available pyrethroid-treated ITN samples were analysed. Different extraction methods were evaluated. RESULTS: Insecticide extraction by direct infusion of the ITN samples with dichloromethane and dioxane showed recovery efficiencies around 100% for insecticide-coated bednets, and >70% for insecticide-incorporated bednets. These results were comparable to those obtained with standard sonication methods. The competitive immunoassay characterisation with ELISA presented a dynamic range between 12 nm and 1.5 µm (coefficient of variation (CV) below 5%), with an IC50 at 138 nm, and a limit of detection (LOD) of 3.2 nm. EIS biosensor had a linear range between 1.7 nm and 61 nm (CV around 14%), with an IC50 at 10.4 nm, and a LOD of 0.6 nm. Finally, the lateral flow approach showed a dynamic range between 150 nm and 1.5 µm, an IC50 at 505 nm and a LOD of 67 nm. CONCLUSIONS: ELISA can replace chromatography as an accurate laboratory technique to determine insecticide concentration in bednets. The lateral flow approach developed can be used to estimate ITN insecticide concentration in the field. This new technology, coupled to the new extraction methods, should provide reliable guidelines for ITN use and replacement in the field.

Integrated assessment of infant exposure to persistent organic pollutants and mercury via dietary intake in a central western Mediterranean site (Menorca Island).

In this research the levels of organochlorine compounds (OCs) and mercury (Hg) in several food items from Menorca Island were presented. The dietary exposure assessment was performed in children population from the island. Finally, body burden of OCs and Hg in these infants were associated with their dietary intakes of the selected food items. The dietary exposure to persistent pollutants by children population from Menorca Island was assessed. The concentrations of 11 organochlorine pesticides, 6 polychlorinated biphenils (PCBs) and 1 inorganic toxic element, Hg, were determined in 46 food samples that included fish, shellfish, meat, fruit, vegetables, cheese and eggs, which were acquired in local markets and department stores in the Menorca Island. The most contaminated food items were fish and shellfish, followed by meat and cheese products. OC levels were similar or lower than in other previous studies. However, 66% of the analysed fish and shellfish species for Hg exceeded the human consumption safety limits according to the European Union Legislation. Pollutant data from food was combined with the pattern of consumption of these foodstuffs in order to calculate the estimated daily intake (EDI) of these contaminants. According to our results, fish and fruit were the main sources of OCs to the EDIs (contributing to 37% and 29%, respectively) while fish and shellfish were the main sources of Hg (76% and 17%). The estimated EDIs of OCs were well below to the reported FAO/WHO Tolerable Intakes. However, estimated weekly intake of Hg would exceed the Provisional Tolerable Weekly Intake indicated by EFSA in the case that the only fish and seafood source would be from the central western Mediterranean. Direct associations between fish/shellfish consumption and hair concentrations of Hg and fish and meat consumption and 4,4'-DDT concentrations in venous serum in the Menorcan children were observed.