Polymorphism of Genes and Their Impact on Beef Quality.

The single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) form of genes is a valuable source of information regarding their suitability for use as specific markers of desirable traits in beef cattle breeding. For several decades, breeding work focused on improving production efficiency through optimizing the feed conversion ratio and improving daily gains and meat quality. Many research teams previously undertook research work on single-nucleotide polymorphism in myostatin (MSTN), thyroglobulin (TG), calpain (CAPN), and calpastatin (CAST) proteins. The literature review focuses on the most frequently addressed issues concerning these genes in beef cattle production and points to a number of relevant studies on the genes' polymorphic forms. The four genes presented are worth considering during breeding work as a set of genes that can positively influence productivity and production quality.

Comparison of Enzyme Activity in Order to Describe the Metabolic Profile of Dairy Cows during Early Lactation.

Enzymatic diagnostics have practical applications in diseases of the liver, heart, pancreas, muscles, blood, and neoplastic diseases. This study aimed to compare enzyme activity to describe dairy cows' metabolism during early lactation. Based on their general health symptoms, the cows were assigned to one of three groups: acidotic, healthy and ketotic. Samples of milk, blood and rumen fluid were collected at 12 ± 5 days postpartum. Ketotic cows were characterized by the highest malondialdehyde (MDA, 76.098 nM/mL), glutathione reductase (GluRed, 109.852 U/L), superoxide dismutase (SOD, 294.22 U/L) and gamma-glutamyltranspeptidase (GGTP, 71.175 U/L) activity. In comparing ketotic and acidotic cows, MDA, GluRed, SOD and GGTP activity were higher by a factor of almost: 1.85, 1.89, 0.79 and 2.50, respectively. Acidotic cows were characterized by the highest aspartate aminotransferase activity (AspAT, 125.914 U/L). In comparing acidotic and ketotic cows, AspAT activity was higher by a factor of almost 1.90. The use of enzymatic markers could limit the frequency of sampling for laboratory analyses and may result in a faster diagnosis of metabolic disorders. AspAT activity in blood serum seems to be a good indicator of acidosis; GGTP may participate in the pathogenesis of ketosis.

The relationship between plasma ß-hydroxybutyric acid and conjugated linoleic acid in milk as a biomarker for early diagnosis of ketosis in postpartum Polish Holstein-Friesian cows.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to investigate the association between plasma ß-hydroxybutyric acid (BHBA) and conjugated linoleic acid in postpartum Polish Holstein-Friesian (PHF) cows. The experiment was carried out at an experimental dairy farm, where a herd of approximately 350 cows was kept. Samples were taken at six time points: between days 5-7, 8-14, 15-21, 22-28, 29-35, and 36-42, resulting in 510 samples of both milk and blood. The cows involved in the experiment were divided into two groups - ketotic and healthy - by taking into account general health symptoms, blood serum BHBA, and non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) concentration at 5-7 days postpartum. RESULTS: In the first week of lactation, at 5-7 day in milk (DIM), the study showed a 53% lower level of C18:2 cis-9 trans-11 (CLA9) and an 80% lower level of C18:2 trans-10 cis-12 (CLA10) in cows with diagnosed ketosis compared to healthy cows. In the second week of lactation (8-14 DIM), a 34% lower level of CLA9 and a 54% lower level of CLA10 was found in the group of cows with BHBA levels > 1.2 mmol/L. Additionally, Pearson correlation analysis showed significant negative correlation between BHBA x CLA9 and BHBA x CLA10 in the first week of lactation: - 0.732and - 0.821, respectively. CONCLUSION: The study shows that that both CLA9 and CLA10 can be used as markers for the early diagnosis of elevated blood levels of BHBA in postpartum Polish Holstein-Friesian cows.

Comparison of different applications of automatic herd control systems on dairy farms - a review.

Recent years have seen the rapid development of different devices which can be helpful in the daily work of livestock farmers. The growing size of livestock herds has led farmers to lose individual contact with their animals, while behavioral studies show that breeders can effectively and precisely monitor a herd of up to 100 cows. This was the main motivation for this study, which aims to identify and test various electronic devices which provide useful herd management data, including estrus detection, individual activity and body temperature measurement, monitoring rumen pH levels, milk quality and content as well as milk temperature and somatic cell count measurements. Some devices can detect the metabolic status of animals with a reasonable level of precision. Contemporary animal farms are offered a large number of systems for monitoring the behavior of the animals in the herd and helping to identify those that are intended for insemination or are too active or excessively apathetic. Monitoring devices support herd management and help to reduce costs through the early detection of animal diseases and nutritional problems. This review aims to compile and summarize the information currently available on the use of automatic herd control systems on dairy farms, as well as to discuss the interpretation of the results, providing a useful diagnostic tool in nutritional evaluations of dairy herds. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

Comparison between the Behavior of Low-Yield Holstein-Friesian and Brown Swiss Cows under Barn and Pasture Feeding Conditions.

Cow pasturing poses many logistical and nutritional problems. Animals have more difficulty accessing pasture feed and require more time to consume the equivalent amount of dry matter compared to total mixed ration (TMR) feed from a feed table. The study was conducted during August 2016-October 2017 on 64 Holstein-Friesian (HF) cows and 54 Brown Swiss (BS) cows. All animals were equipped with CowManager sensor devices, and the cows' behaviors were recorded: time spent on feed intake, rumination, physical activity, and rest. In winter, cows were mainly fed hay, while in summer, they took forage from the pasture or freshly cut forage provided in the barn. The study showed that the time of day had a significant (p < 0.001) effect on the cows' feeding behaviors. The study also showed behavioral differences between HF and BS breeds. HF cows, regardless of the location and type of feed provided, spent more time on feed intake and chewed less compared to the BS breed. These differences were observable in all studied lactation groups. Animals were most willing to take forage two hours before sunrise and two hours before sunset and showed an increased willingness to take feed immediately after leaving the milking parlor.

The Effect of Parity on the Quality of Colostrum of Holstein Dairy Cows in the Organic Production System.

A special feature of organic production systems is the cows' significantly lower productivity, which is adapted to environmental conditions. The quantity and quality of colostrum is negatively correlated, high amounts of colostrum are associated with low amounts of immunoglobulins. Cows' parity is also a modulating factor, and studies have shown an increase in colostral IgG corresponds with increasing parity. This study's aim was to determine the effect of cows' parity on colostrum quality, in an organic farm setting. From a basic organic herd of dairy cattle, 40 Polish Holstein-Friesian cows were selected: 10 cows each of primiparous, second lactation, fourth lactation, and fifth lactation. Colostrum and transition milk samples were taken from each cow seven times: twice daily on the 1st and 2nd days after calving (every 12 h), and once daily on the 3rd to 5th days. Multiparous cows' colostrum had higher levels of total proteins, casein, and non-fat dry matter, versus primiparous. Only cows in the second and fourth lactations produced very good quality colostrum (with immunoglobulins over 50 g/L), meeting standards for immunoglobulin concentration. In conclusion, the production of very good quality colostrum is limited during the first lactation, which may suggest the mammary gland is poorly developed, and, thus, immunoglobulin transport is limited. Variability in the colostrum's immunoglobulin content from first and second collections post-calving was higher in multiparous versus primiparous cows. Therefore, it should be good practice to freeze colostrum from multiparous cows in case of poor-quality primiparous colostrum.

Organic Milk Production and Dairy Farming Constraints and Prospects under the Laws of the European Union.

In recent years, there has been rapid development in organic farming. When choosing organic livestock products, consumers are guided by the conviction that animals are provided with the highest welfare standards and access to pasture. The purpose of this article was to trace the principles of organic farming prevailing in the EU with regard to milk production and cattle breeding. The principles of organic production are universal and their application is not limited to certified farms. Organic certification is intended to assure the consumer of the quality and method of production. Due to additional requirements imposed by law, organic cows are usually kept in better welfare conditions compared to conventional cattle, but this is not the rule. The altered taste and texture of organic milk and its products compared to conventional products mainly depends on the presence of pasture greens in the cows' diet. Therefore, milk from conventionally kept, pasture-grazed cows may have similar characteristics and composition. Organic farms tend to have lower milk yields compared to conventional farms due to the lower consumption of concentrate feed. In the future, it is expected that the proportion of land that is unsuitable for the production of crops for human consumption will increasingly be used for cow grazing.

The Influence of Cold-Pressed Linseed Cake Supplementation on Fatty-Acid Profile and Fat-Soluble Vitamins of Cows' Milk in an Organic Production System.

The aim of the study was to determine the effect of linseed cake supplementation during the winter period as a factor influencing the level of some bioactive components (milk composition, fatty-acid profile, and fat-soluble vitamins) in the milk fat fraction in cows kept on an organic farm. Forty multiparous (second and third lactation) Holstein-Friesian cows were selected that had 81 ± 12 days in milk and produced 15.08 ± 1.20 kg of milk/day. Two groups were created for the experiment: control (CTL; n = 20) and experimental (LC; n = 20). The experiment was divided into two periods: an initial period lasting 7 days in which the experimental group was habituated to the new supplement in their diet; the proper experimental phase, lasting 6 weeks, in which the cows in the experimental group received an individual daily dose of linseed cake (300 g/day/cow). Linseed cake supplementation had a positive impact on the levels of bioactive components (fatty-acid profile and fat-soluble vitamins) in the milk fat fraction. At the end of the trial, the concentration of C18:2 cis9 trans11, C18:1 trans11, α-retinol, α-tocopherol, and total antioxidant status increased 1.59-, 1.94-, 3.12-, 3.38-, and 3.09-fold, respectively, relative to the control levels. The use of linseed cake in winter on organic farms makes it possible to increase the antioxidant potential of milk, thereby eliminating the disparity in the quality of milk from the summer season compared to the winter season.

Genetic and Environmental Determinants of Beef Quality-A Review.

The flavor, quality, and composition of beef changes with the cattle diet regimen. The quality of meat varies, and that variability is determined by both individual and environmental factors: age, breed, live weight, fatness degree, plane of nutrition, and concentrate/roughage ratio. The strategy for the rearing and feeding of cattle for slaughter should therefore aim at reducing the saturated fatty acid content and increasing the polyunsaturated fatty acid and monounsaturated fatty acid levels. Many diseases in humans, like atherosclerosis and cardiovascular diseases, are associated with dietary fat, and their development process could take a year, the results of which can be a shorter life and its lower quality. The objective of this review was to describe the factors affecting the meat quality and fatty acid profile of the intramuscular fat of European cattle fed various diets.

Early detection of mastitis in cows using the system based on 3D motions detectors.

Mastitis is one of the major health problems in dairy herds leading to a reduction in the leading to a reduction in the quality of milk and economic losses. The research aimed to present the system, which uses electronic 3D motion detectors to detect the early symptoms of mastitis. The system would allow more effective prevention of this illness. The experiment was carried out on 118 cows (64 Holstein Friesian and 54 Brown Swiss). The animals were kept in free-stall barn with access to pasture. The occurrence of mastitis cases was noticed in veterinary register. Microbiological culture was taken from milk in order to confirm the development of infection. Data from motion detectors were defined as time spent by animals on feed intake, ruminating, physical activity and rest, and were expanded by adding information about feeding group, breed type and lactation number. During analyses, two approaches were used to process the same dataset: artificial neural networks (ANN) and logistic regression. The obtained ANN and the logistic regression models proved to be satisfactory from the perspective of applied criteria of goodness of fit (area under curve-exceed 0.8). Quality parameters (accuracy, sensitivity and specifity) of logistic regression are relatively high (larger than 0.73), whereas the ranks of significance of the studied variables varied across datasets. These proposed models can be useful for automating the detection of mastitis once integrated into the farm's IT system.

Interaction between the level of immunoglobulins and number of somatic cells as a factor shaping the immunomodulating properties of colostrum.

The aim of this study was to investigate the association between immunoglobulins and SCC as a factor in shaping the content of the immunostimulatory components of colostrum. Seventy-eight multiparous Polish Holstein-Friesian cows were selected for the experiment. Colostrum samples were collected immediately after calving (up to a max. of 2 h). The cows were divided into groups according to the following levels: Immunoglobulins (IG class)-(IG1) over 50 g/L, (IG2) up to 50 g/L; SCC class-(SCC1) up to 400 000/ml, (SCC2) 400-800 000/ml, (SCC3) over 800 000/ml. Colostrum assigned to the IG1 SCC1 group had a statistically significant higher (p ≤ 0.01) concentration of both whey proteins and fatty acids compared to the IG1 SCC2 and SCC3 groups. The concentration of IgG, IgM, and IgA was shown to be higher in IG1 SCC1 than IG2 SCC3 by 226%, 149%, and 115%, respectively. The concentration of lactoferrin was shown to be higher in IG1 SCC1 than IG2 SCC3 by 149%. The determination of colostrum quality based on the concentration of immunoglobulins in the colostrum may not be sufficient because serum IgG concentrations at birth show a linear increase relative to colostrum SCC. A breakdown of colostrum into quality classes, taking into account the level of SCC, should therefore be introduced.

Using the Relationship between Concentrations of Selected Whey Proteins and BHBA to Characterize the Metabolism of Dairy Cows in Early Lactation.

A negative energy balance alters the concentration of various fractions of cows' milk. Therefore, by analyzing the concentration of individual proteins in milk, it is possible to indirectly monitor the health of the animal. The aim of the present study was to identify the relationship between the concentrations of blood ß-hydroxybutyric acid (BHBA) and whey proteins in milk as a marker for the diagnosis of metabolic diseases. The analysis included milk and blood samples from 95 Holstein-Friesian cows, which were divided into three groups that were differentiated in terms of serum BHBA levels 5-7 days post-calving: LBHBA, low level of BHBA: 0.200-0.500 mmol/L; NBHBA, optimal level of BHBA- control group: 0.500-1.200 mmol/L; HBHBA, high level of BHBA: >1.200 mmol/L. Concentrations of α-lactoalbumin in the milk after 7 days of lactation proceeded in accordance with the concentration of ß-hydroxybutyric acid, as follows: LBHBA > NBHBA > HBHBA. Concentrations of ß-lactoglobulin in milk after 14 days of lactation proceeded in accordance with the concentration of ß-hydroxybutyric acid, as follows: LBHBA < NBHBA < HBHBA. Therefore, it can be concluded that whey proteins can be used as non-invasive markers for diagnosing metabolic diseases. A high concentration of ß-lactoglobulin can be a marker for diagnosing ketosis. Conversely, elevated levels of α-lactalbumin may indicate the occurrence of a metabolic disorder, such as acidosis.

Use of somatic cell count as an indicator of colostrum quality.

The impact of cow mammary gland diseases on the quality of colostrum is not conclusively defined; research results are conflicting. However, it is widely believed that mastitis lowers the level of immunoglobulins and the quality of the colostrum produced. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the influence of somatic cell counts (SCC) on the colostrum immunostimulating and chemical components. The experiment was conducted on an experimental organic dairy farm in which a herd of approximately 250 cows was kept in a freestall housing system, with the average performance exceeding 6,000 kg of milk per lactation. Colostrum and milk samples were taken individually from each cow seven times during the experiment: from the first to second day after calving-twice per day, and from the third to fifth day after calving-once per day. Therefore, after preliminary analyses, the cows were divided into two groups based on the cytological quality of their colostrum at the first collection: 1. SCC ≤400,000 cells/ml (good quality colostrum; GCC- 18 cows), 2. SCC ≥ 400,000 cells/ml (low quality colostrum; LCC- 22 cows). The study found almost double the concentration of immunoglobulins and essential fatty acids in first milking colostrum in the GCC group than in colostrum from the LCC group. In addition, an increase in the concentration of lysozyme in first milking colostrum was associated with a decrease in the concentration of immunoglobulins. In addition, the increase in the level of lysozyme was associated with a decrease in the concentration of immunoglobulins. In conclusion, the SCC of first milking colostrum can be used as an indicator of colostrum quality.

The Effect of Staphylococcus spp., Streptococcus spp. and Enterobacteriaceae on the Development of Whey Protein Levels and Oxidative Stress Markers in Cows with Diagnosed Mastitis.

Mastitis is one of the most common diseases of high-yielding dairy cows, and over 90% of cases are caused by Streptococcus spp., Enterobacteriaceae, or Staphylococcus spp. Certain groups of proteins are very significant in terms of the cow's antioxidant, bacteriostatic, and germicidal properties: lysozyme (Lz), lactoferrin (Lf), and ß-lactoglobulin (BLG). This study aimed to determine the influence of Staphylococcus spp., Streptococcus spp., and Enterobacteriaceae on the secretion of bioactive whey proteins and oxidative stress markers. From the herd, 60 multiparous cows with diagnosed mastitis were selected. Samples were taken individually from each quarter and pooled, which gave 60 samples. Enterobacteriaceae did not affect the BLG synthesis, whereas lysozyme and lactoferrin responded to a high concentration of these bacterial strains. In the case of Staphylococcus spp. infection, the BLG level increased. These strains did not affect the levels of di-malonic aldehyde (MDA), lactoferrin, and lysozyme. In contrast, they were significantly influenced by Streptococcus spp. In summary, the levels of whey proteins and oxidative stress markers changed depending on the bacterial strain inducing inflammation. Lysozyme and lactoferrin may be markers of udder inflammation caused by Enterobacteriaceae and Streptococcus spp., whereas ß-lactoglobulin may prove useful in diagnosing Staphylococcus spp. induced mastitis.

Relationship between the Quality of Colostrum and the Formation of Microflora in the Digestive Tract of Calves.

The aim of the study was to determine the relationship between the quality of colostrum and the formation of intestinal bacterial microflora in calves from birth to day 7. Seventy-five multiparous Polish Holstein-Friesian cows were selected. Colostrum samples were collected individually up to two hours after calving. The analysis was carried out on 75 calves; which were divided into three groups based on the colostrum quality class of the first milking. Faecal samples were collected rectally from each calf on its seventh day of life. Calves were weighed twice; on days 0 and 7 of life. It has been shown that with a higher concentration of colostrum protein fraction, primarily immunoglobulins, the colonisation of anaerobic bacteria occurs faster. Colostrum with a density >1.070 g/cm3 promoted the significant development of Lactobacilli and Bifidobacterium spp. which at the same time contributed to the reduction of unfavourable microflora, such as Coliforms or Enterococci. Regardless of the initial body weight, daily weight gains were highest for calves fed with colostrum with a density >1.070 g/cm3. The study showed a significant influence of colostrum quality class on the formation of the intestinal microflora and the daily weight gains of calves.

Composition and Factors Affecting Quality of Bovine Colostrum: A Review.

Colostrum as a secretion of the mammary gland is produced and accumulated in the final stage of pregnancy and in the first days after calving. It is designed to provide the calf with the necessary nutrients and biologically active ingredients. One of the most difficult periods in the life of animals is their rearing, and the most sensitive are the first days after birth. This is the time when most falls occur, and they are caused by mortality and morbidity, even at the level of 30%. Such losses affect the performance and profitability of animal production (the percentage of animals intended for reproduction or fattening is reduced and the intensity of selection in the herd is also reduced). Both diseases and mortality are the cause of serious economic, production, and breeding losses, which are the result of weak immune mechanisms. The adaptability of calves to the environment is determined by their immune status. Colostrum has a regulating function and stimulates the young organism to grow, and it has properties that support the functioning of systems: Endocrine and immunological. For colostrum to fulfil its role, it must be administered immediately after birth, because the immunoglobulins it contains are absorbed during the first 16-27 h after the birth of the calf, preferably within 2-4 h of age. Blood from calves that have been properly calved should have an antibody concentration of 15g/L (24-48 h of age). Therefore, immunoglobulins are the most important factor affecting infectious immunity; an adequate concentration of immunoglobulins in calves' blood is related to their survival and health. It is the intent of this review to synthesize and summarize the information currently available on colostrum, as well as to discuss the interpretation of the results.

Degrees of Antioxidant Protection: A 2-Year Study of the Bioactive Properties of Organic Milk in Poland.

The aim of this study was to determine the nutritional value of organic milk in Poland, investigate the influence of diet on antioxidant capacity and degree of antioxidant protection (DAP), and to examine the effect of season on the bioactive properties of milk from organic farms. From 2014 to 2015, 820 milk samples were collected from 6 organic farms during indoor feeding season (IDS) and pasture feeding season (PS). Pasture feeding season + corn grain (PSCG) cows' daily ration during pasture feeding season was enriched with 4 kg a day of corn to improve dietary energy balance. Milk obtained during PS was found to have a higher fat content, slight but significantly lower protein content compared with milk from IDS. The study showed that the content of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) in milk fat was strongly linked to the concentration of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and, to a lesser extent, on the supply of MUFA. The IDS data (concentration of vitamin E, A, and ß-carotene) showed the lowest values compared with the PS and PSCG groups. Total antioxidant status (TAS) and DAP showed an increasing trend in organic milk. PSCG was associated with highest level of DAP (9% higher than PS and 79% higher than IDS) and TAS (37% higher than PS and 79% higher than IDS). The results obtained show that supplementation of the basic ration with corn grain improved both TAS and DAP. The higher DAP and TAS value is responsible for product stability, considering the risk factor related to levels of cholesterol-oxide intake in humans.