Friend or foe? How primary care physicians perceive hospitalists.

BACKGROUND: Increased use of hospitalists is redefining the role of primary care physicians. Whether primary care physicians welcome this transition is unknown. We examined primary care physicians' perceptions of how hospitalists affect their practices, their patient relationships, and overall patient care. METHODS: A mailed survey of randomly selected general internists, general pediatricians, and family practitioners with experience with hospitalists practicing in California. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Physicians' self-reports of hospitalists' effects on quality of patient care and on their own practices. RESULTS: Seven hundred eight physicians were eligible for this study, and there was a 74% response rate. Of the 524 physicians who responded, 34% were internists, 38% were family practitioners, and 29% were pediatricians. Of the 524 respondents, 335 (64%) had hospitalists available to them and 120 (23%) were required to use hospitalists for all admissions. Physicians perceived hospitalists as increasing (41%) or not changing (44%) the overall quality of care and perceived their practice style differences as neutral or beneficial. Twenty-eight percent of primary care physicians believed that the quality of the physician-patient relationship decreased; 69% reported that hospitalists did not affect their income; 53% believed that hospitalists decreased their workload; and 50% believed that hospitalists increased practice satisfaction. In a multivariate model predicting physician perceptions, internists, physicians who attributed loss of income to hospitalists, and physicians in mandatory hospitalist systems viewed hospitalists less favorably. CONCLUSIONS: Practicing primary care physicians have generally favorable perceptions of hospitalists' effect on patients and on their own practice satisfaction, especially in voluntary hospitalist systems that decrease the workload of primary care physicians and do not threaten their income. Primary care physicians, particularly internists, are less accepting of mandatory hospitalist systems. Arch Intern Med. 2000;160:2902-2908

Antenatal diagnosis of lethal skeletal dysplasias.

Lethal skeletal dysplasias (LSD) are a heterogeneous group of rare but important genetic disorders characterized by abnormal growth and development of bone and cartilage. We describe the diagnosis and outcome of 29 cases of lethal skeletal dysplasias evaluated between January 1989 and December 1996 at the University of Maryland Medical Center and the Ultrasound Institute of Baltimore. Two cases presented at delivery with no prenatal care while the remaining 27 cases were identified by antenatal sonography. Final diagnoses included thanatophoric dysplasia (14), osteogenesis imperfecta, type II (6), achondrogenesis (2), short rib syndromes (3), campomelic syndrome (2), atelosteogenesis (1), and no evidence of a skeletal dysplasia (1). Twenty out of 27 pregnancies were terminated with an average at detection of 21.6 weeks. The other 7 pregnancies that went on to deliver had an average age at detection of 29.2 weeks. Fetal abnormalities in the terminated pregnancies were identified at a significantly earlier gestational age (P = 0.0016) than the pregnancies that continued. While the identification of LSD by sonography was excellent (26/27), only 13/27 (48%) were given an accurate specific antenatal diagnosis. In 8/14 (57%) cases with an inaccurate or nonspecific diagnosis there was a significant or crucial change in the genetic counseling. Thus, while antenatal sonography is an excellent method for discovering LSD, clinical examination, radiographs, and autopsy are mandatory for making a specific diagnosis.

Magnetic resonance imaging in young adults with cystic fibrosis.

It is difficult to distinguish between atelectasis, mucoid impaction, and peribronchial inflammation on chest roentgenograms (CXR) in patients with cystic fibrosis (CF). Differentiation between hilar adenopathy and prominent pulmonary vessels is also sometimes difficult. We studied 16 young adults with CF using both magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and CXR to evaluate the usefulness of MRI in this clinical context. The same patients were studied with abdominal ultrasound and MRI for evaluation of the pancreas, gallbladder, liver, and spleen. The MRI was superior to CXR in detecting hilar and mediastinal adenopathy and in differentiating nodes from prominent vessels. It was useful in the evaluation of bronchiectasis. The CXR was superior for assessing infiltrates, hyperinflation, sternal bowing, volume loss, and hilar retraction. The MRI was only slightly better than sonography in depicting fatty infiltration of the pancreas. The modalities were equally effective in detecting hepatosplenomegaly and signs of portal hypertension. Gallbladder evaluation was far superior with sonography.

Hormone replacement therapy for African American women: missed opportunities for effective intervention.

OBJECTIVES: Because of the potential benefits and risks of hormone replacement therapy (HRT), information about the efficacy of HRT in different groups of women is important to patients and providers. The objectives of this study were to review the evidence on the benefits and risks of HRT in African American women and to present a quantitative analysis of the potential reduction in mortality from osteoporotic fractures and coronary heart disease and the potential increase in risk of breast and endometrial cancer. METHODS: A MEDLINE search of English-language observational studies and clinical trials on the effects of HRT on osteoporotic fractures and coronary heart disease (CHD) was conducted for the time period from 1966 to September 1998. Using available CHD mortality data for African American women and white women, potential reductions in mortality with HRT were explored for African American and white women. RESULTS: In the 30 studies on CHD and HRT, African American women were known to comprise only 173 (0.1%) of 148,437 participants. In 11 studies of HRT and osteoporotic fractures, only 128 (0.4%) of 40,299 participants were known to be African American women. An analysis of CHD mortality by decade intervals indicated that African American women, aged 55 to 64, are more likely to die from CHD each year than white women. Despite a lower incidence of breast and endometrial cancer among African American women, the mortality rates of African American women with these cancers is higher compared with white women. CONCLUSIONS: With the higher underlying CHD mortality rate among African American women, HRT is an important potential preventive therapy. The absence of African American women and other non-white women from clinical studies of HRT makes it difficult to fully assess the risks and benefits of HRT in this group of women.

Hepatitis c and cirrhotic liver disease in the Nile delta of Egypt: a community-based study.

Residents of Egypt's Nile river delta have among the world's highest seroprevalence of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. To assess the impact of HCV on chronic liver disease, we studied the association between HCV, other hepatitis viruses, and cirrhotic liver disease in a cross-sectional, community-based survey of 801 persons aged > or = 10 years living in a semi-urban, Nile delta village. Residents were systematically sampled using questionnaires, physical examination, abdominal ultrasonography and serologically for antibodies to HCV (confirmed by a third-generation immunoblot assay) and to hepatitis A virus (HAV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), and hepatitis E virus (HEV). The seroprevalence of HCV increased with age from 19% in persons 10-19 years old to about 60% in persons 30 years and older. Although no practices that might facilitate HCV transmission were discovered, the seroprevalence of HCV was significantly associated with remote (> 1 year) histories of schistosomiasis. Sonographic evidence of cirrhosis was present in 3% (95% CI: 1%, 4%) of the population (0.7% of persons under 30 years of age and in 5% of older persons), and was significantly associated with HCV seroreactivity. Our findings are consistent with the hypothesis that past mass parenteral chemotherapy campaigns for schistosomiasis facilitated HCV transmission, and that HCV may be a major cause of the high prevalence of liver cirrhosis in this Nile village.

Racial/ethnic disparities in nursing.

The racial and ethnic composition of the registered nurse (RN) workforce in California is not at parity with the composition of the population. We find that the underrepresentation of African Americans in nursing in California appears to be due to lower overall educational attainment among African Americans. Underrepresentation of Latinos is due to lower overall educational attainment and, to a lesser extent, a lower percentage of college-educated Latinos pursuing careers in nursing. Improving the overall educational attainment of minority students is critical to increasing the number of minorities in nursing.

Medicaid managed care's impact on safety-net clinics in California.

A growing percentage of Medicaid patients are receiving medical care within a managed care system. This policy change has raised concerns about whether safety-net providers can maintain their share of Medi-Cal (California Medicaid) patients. From 1995 to 1997 several of California's counties implemented mandatory Medi-Cal managed care. The majority of California's safety-net primary care clinics experienced a decline in the percentage of their patients insured by Medi-Cal. However, after the overall decline in the number of Medi-Cal beneficiaries was controlled for, the increased penetration of Medi-Cal managed care in a county was not independently associated with a decline in clinics' share of Medi-Cal patients. Despite this fact, it may become increasingly difficult for clinics to maintain their current level of services with declining Medi-Cal enrollment and other anticipated reforms in their funding.

Independent practice association physician groups in California.

We surveyed independent practice association (IPA) physician groups in California about their approaches to staffing, physician payment, and governance. Most IPAs desired more primary care physicians but not more specialists. Capitation was the major mode of remuneration for primary care physicians in 77 percent of IPAs, and for specialists in 30 percent of IPAs. Most IPAs also used financial incentives related to use of referral or ancillary services. Boards of directors were dominated by physicians, but governance tended to be centralized rather than highly democratic. We found that IPAs mirror many of the broader trends in physician staffing and physician payment that exist in managed care organizations.

Measuring shortages of hospital nurses: how do you know a hospital with a nursing shortage when you see one?

Lack of clarity in definitions of shortages of hospital registered nurses may cause problems for effective policy making, particularly if different measures for identifying a nurse shortage lead to different conclusions about which hospitals and regions are experiencing a shortage. The authors compared different methods of identifying hospitals and regions with a shortage of registered nurses, including both relatively subjective measures (e.g., a hospital administrator's report of a nurse shortage) and more objective measures (e.g., number of registered nurses per inpatient year). Associations were strongest between self-reported shortage status and nursing vacancy rates and weaker for self-reported shortage status and registered nurses per inpatient year and overall regional supply of nurses. Different definitions of nursing shortage are not equally reliable in discriminating between hospitals and regions with and without nursing shortages. When faced with reports sounding an alarm about a hospital nursing shortage, policy makers should carefully consider the definition of shortage being used.

Hospital registered nurse shortages: environmental, patient, and institutional predictors.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the characteristics of acute-care hospitals that report registered nurse shortages when a widespread shortage exists and when a widespread shortage is no longer evident. DATA SOURCE: Secondary data from the American Hospital Association's Nursing Personnel Survey from 1990 and 1992 were used. The study population was all acute-care hospitals in the United States. STUDY DESIGN: Outcome variables included whether a hospital experienced a shortage in 1990, when many hospitals reported a nursing shortage, or whether a hospital reported a shortage in both 1990 and 1992. Predictor variables included environmental, patient, and institutional characteristics. Associations between predictor and outcome variables were investigated using probit analyses. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Location in the South, a high percentage of nonwhite county residents, a high percentage of patients with Medicaid or Medicare as payer, a higher patient acuity, and use of team or functional nursing care delivery consistently predicted hospitals reporting shortages both when there was a widespread shortage and when there was no widespread shortage. CONCLUSIONS: Although some characteristics under the direct control of hospitals, such as nursing care delivery model, are associated with their reporting a shortage of nurses, shortage is also strongly associated with broader population characteristics such as minority communities and a public insurance payer mix. Awareness of these broader factors may help inform policies to improve the distribution of nurse supply.

Quality of primary care practice in a large HMO according to physician specialty.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether physician specialty was associated with differences in the quality of primary care practice and patient satisfaction in a large, group model HMO. DATA SOURCES/STUDY SETTING: 10,608 patients ages 35-85 years, selected using stratified probability sampling from the primary care panels of 60 family physicians (FPs), 245 general internists (GIMs), and 55 subspecialty internists (SIMs) at 13 facilities in the Kaiser Permanente Medical Care Program of Northern California. Patients were surveyed in 1995. STUDY DESIGN: A cross-sectional patient survey measured patient reports of physician performance on primary care measures of coordination, comprehensiveness, and accessibility of care, preventive care procedures, and health promotion. Additional items measured patient satisfaction and health values and beliefs. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Patients were remarkably similar across physician specialty groups in their health values and beliefs, ratings of the quality of primary care, and satisfaction. Patients rated GIMs higher than FPs on coordination (adjusted mean scores 68.0 and 58.4 respectively, p<.001) and slightly higher on accessibility and prevention; GIMs were rated more highly than SIMs on comprehensiveness (adjusted mean scores 76.4 and 73.8, p<.01). There were no significant differences between specialty groups on a variety of measures of patient satisfaction. CONCLUSIONS: Few differences in the quality of primary care were observed by physician specialty in the setting of a large, well-established group model HMO. These similarities may result from the direct influence of practice setting on physician behavior and organization of care or, indirectly, through the types of physicians attracted to a well-established group model HMO. In some settings, practice organization may have more influence than physician specialty on the delivery of primary care.

Differences in resource use and costs of primary care in a large HMO according to physician specialty.

OBJECTIVE: To determine if primary care physician specialty is associated with differences in use of health services. DATA SOURCES: Automated outpatient diagnostic, utilization, and cost data on 15,223 members (35-85 years of age) of a large group model HMO. STUDY DESIGN: One-year prospective comparison of primary care provided by 245 general internists (GIMs), 60 family physicians (FPs), and 55 subspecialty internists (SIMs) with case-mix assessed during a nine-month baseline period using Ambulatory Diagnostic Groups. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Adjusting for demographics and case mix, patients of GIMs and FPs had similar hospitalization and ambulatory visit rates, and similar laboratory and radiology costs. Patients of FPs made fewer visits to dermatology, psychiatry, and gynecology (combined visit rate ratio: 0.86, 95% CI: 0.74-0.96). However, they made more urgent care visits (rate ratio 1.19, 95% CI: 1.07-1.23). Patients of SIMs had higher hospitalization rates than those of GIMs (rate ratio 1.33, 95% CI: 1.06-1.68), greater use of urgent care (rate ratio: 1.14, 95% CI: 1.04-1.25), and higher costs for pharmacy (cost ratio: 1.17, 95% CI: 0.93-1.18) and radiologic services (cost ratio: 1.14, 95% CI: 1.01-1.30). The hospitalization difference was due partly to the inclusion of patients with specialty-related diagnoses in panels of SIMs. Radiology and pharmacy differences persisted after excluding these patients. CONCLUSIONS: In this uniform practice environment, specialty differences in primary care practice were small. Subspecialists used slightly more resources than generalists. The broader practice style of FPs may have created access problems for their patients.

Metoclopramide-ceruletide assisted small bowel examination.

We investigated the feasibility of performing a combined upper gastrointestinal and small bowel examination. Metoclopramide was given at the start of the examination and ceruletide was injected to hasten small bowel transit. The quality and duration of fifty examinations (Group I) was compared to that of fifty patients receiving metoclopramide alone (Group II) and fifty patients undergoing unaided examinations (Group III). The mean duration of the entire study was 29.3 minutes for Group I patients, 37.6 minutes for patients in Group II and 69.1 minutes for Group III subjects. The combination of agents produced contracted fold patterns in the jejunum and ileum that rendered individual loops more accessible to individual study under fluoroscopy in approximately 50% of subjects.

National health insurance and the problems of American medicine.

The problems of inequitable access to care, health care inflation, and reduced physician autonomy confront physicians and health care reformers with a dilemma. Piecemeal measures attempting to alleviate one problem in isolation simply exacerbate the others. A logical approach to addressing these problems together is a national health program based on a single payer of health services. By reducing administrative waste and emphasizing global budgetary strategies, the single-payer system could promote more efficient health care spending. While single-payer systems create more explicit political conflict over resource allocation, they also have demonstrated an ability to maintain quality of care and reduce bureaucratic intrusions into clinical practice.

The role of the Society of Teachers of Family Medicine in health care reform: a membership survey.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: We conducted a survey of STFM members to: 1) measure perceived knowledge of and support for four health care reform proposals, 2) rate the members' priorities about specific legislative activities relevant to STFM, health care reform, and STFM general activities, and 3) assess interest in STFM developing a monograph on health care reform. METHODS: A self-administered questionnaire was mailed to a 15% random sample (n = 470) of STFM members. Researchers were blinded to the identity of respondents. RESULTS: Three hundred seven members returned completed surveys (response rate = 65%). Members were largely divided in their support between the pay or play and the single payer plans, with 39% (95% confidence interval (CI) 33%-44%) preferring the former and 34% (95% CI = 31%-37%) preferring the latter. Employer mandate and tax credit plans were rated less favorably. Overall, members rated their perceived knowledge about these plans as fair to good. In terms of rating their priorities about STFM activities, members gave the highest ratings to STFM legislative activities specific to the needs of academic family medicine (eg, faculty development, reimbursement for clinical and teaching activities, and research). These specific legislative activities were rated higher than all of the general categories of STFM activities. CONCLUSION: STFM members want STFM to advocate for specific legislation pertinent to the development of academic family medicine. Although most members support comprehensive health care reform, no single plan is preferred by a majority of members.

How does a changing country change family practice?

The US population is changing. Ethnic minorities are now the fastest growing segment of the US population, and they have higher mortality rates than the remainder of Americans. Members of minority groups also earn less and are twice as likely as other residents to lack medical insurance. Minority communities have poorer health and access to care than the remainder of the population. Women constitute more than half the total population of the United States and are half of the labor force. Family structure has changed such that 53% of African-American, 32% of Hispanic, and 27% of all families were headed by a single parent in 1992. The elderly population has also increased and has a greater prevalence of chronic disease. The physician workforce has more female and younger physicians than in the past but a still-inadequate number of minority physicians. In contrast to the low proportion of minorities in the US physician workforce, women now comprise approximately half of medical students. A major economic trend affecting health care access in the United States is the lack of secure insurance coverage for 44 million people in 1998. Rates of no insurance are higher among minorities, households with no full-time worker, the near poor, and among persons with less education. Private charitable services, as well as the formal safety net systems, are experiencing financial pressure in the United States, further jeopardizing access to care for the uninsured. The average family in the United States is now working harder--but earning less money. The changing population mix, shifting gender balance, increasing proportion of elderly, and major socioeconomic trends and income disparities occurring in the United States today have shaped a practice environment that differs from whatfacedfamily physicians 30 years ago. Thus, a change in approach to training and practice is needed, while preserving the critical relationship we have with our patients and continuing to meet their needs.

Teaching community-oriented primary care through longitudinal group projects.

BACKGROUND: Though community-oriented primary care (COPC) has been advocated as an effective way of addressing health problems of communities, it is neither widely understood nor frequently practiced. Because COPC requires an extended period of time, as well as an approach and skills not generally learned in medical training, effectively incorporating COPC training into medical education is difficult and not frequently attempted. This paper describes a COPC curriculum for family practice residents based on required participation in a longitudinal group project. METHODS: Residents participated in successive groups that completed a COPC project over a 2-year period. Twenty-two of 26 PGY-2 residents completed an attitude and knowledge test before and after participation in the curriculum. A qualitative evaluation of the curriculum was also performed. RESULTS: Pretest and posttest responses showed significant improvement in residents' knowledge about COPC and a small but significant decline in attitudes toward COPC. Residents' reactions to the curriculum in the qualitative evaluation were both positive and negative. Residents enjoyed the group process and found it intellectually stimulating. Many reported, however, that they did not feel ownership of the project, that working through the four-step systematic COPC process was slow and cumbersome, and that they had learned only part of the COPC process. Residents consistently reported becoming more aware of the importance of discussing the focus of the project (i.e., childhood discipline or domestic violence) with their patients and feeling more comfortable initiating such discussions. CONCLUSIONS: A COPC curriculum based on required participation in a 2-year group project promoted completion of substantial projects. There were trade-offs in resident experience, including loss of continuity for individual residents. Effectively teaching COPC and engaging residents in community-oriented activities remains a challenge.

Collecting data to evaluate the effect of health policies on vulnerable populations.

Public health policies often have disproportionate effects on the poor and other vulnerable groups. Standard survey techniques are often difficult to apply to these vulnerable populations, and many data bases systematically omit such individuals. The purpose of this paper is to review our experience in collecting primary survey data from public hospital, mentally ill, HIV-infected, and non-English-speaking patients. Important issues in conducting research on these populations include proper selection of subjects and comparison groups and difficulties involved in recruitment and enrollment of subjects. Maintaining longitudinal data on these populations is difficult and often requires tracking, secondary contacts, home visits and community outreach, and the use of organizations, institutions, and networks. Investigators must also pay careful attention to ethical issues involved in conducting research on vulnerable populations.

Computed tomography and ultrasound of the traumatized and acutely ill patient.

CT and ultrasound have become invaluable diagnostic tools in the radiologic evaluation of the traumatized and acutely ill patient. CT is the imaging modality of choice in blunt abdominal trauma, retroperitoneal injury and some types of pelvic injury. Ultrasound plays an important role in the evaluation of patients presenting with right upper quadrant pain, renal failure, scrotal pain and enlargement, or pain and bleeding during pregnancy. CT should be reserved for patients with complicated pancreatitis or some forms of renal infection. Thus, CT and ultrasound are important imaging modalities in the work-up of many patients treated by the emergency room physician.

Identifying communities with low dentist supply in California.

OBJECTIVES: This study estimates the supply and geographic distribution of dentists in California and examines the community characteristics associated with supply of dentists. METHODS: The number of practicing dentists was estimated from American Dental Association data on licensed dentists in California. Each dentist's address was geocoded and matched to a Medical Service Study Area (MSSA). Dentist-to-population ratios were computed, and the association between dentist supply and community characteristics was analyzed in regression models. RESULTS: Approximately 20 percent of California communities may have a shortage of dentists. Two-thirds of dental shortage communities are rural. Communities with a lower supply of dentists have higher percentages of minorities, children, and low-income persons. Minority dentists were more likely to practice in minority communities. CONCLUSIONS: Geographic maldistribution of dentists may contribute to poor access to dental care in many communities, especially in rural, low-income, and minority communities. Minority dentists are more likely to practice in minority communities, but are a small portion of the dental workforce.