Lake browning counteracts cyanobacteria responses to nutrients: Evidence from phytoplankton dynamics in large enclosure experiments and comprehensive observational data.

Lakes worldwide are affected by multiple stressors, including climate change. This includes massive loading of both nutrients and humic substances to lakes during extreme weather events, which also may disrupt thermal stratification. Since multi-stressor effects vary widely in space and time, their combined ecological impacts remain difficult to predict. Therefore, we combined two consecutive large enclosure experiments with a comprehensive time-series and a broad-scale field survey to unravel the combined effects of storm-induced lake browning, nutrient enrichment and deep mixing on phytoplankton communities, focusing particularly on potentially toxic cyanobacterial blooms. The experimental results revealed that browning counteracted the stimulating effect of nutrients on phytoplankton and caused a shift from phototrophic cyanobacteria and chlorophytes to mixotrophic cryptophytes. Light limitation by browning was identified as the likely mechanism underlying this response. Deep-mixing increased microcystin concentrations in clear nutrient-enriched enclosures, caused by upwelling of a metalimnetic Planktothrix rubescens population. Monitoring data from a 25-year time-series of a eutrophic lake and from 588 northern European lakes corroborate the experimental results: Browning suppresses cyanobacteria in terms of both biovolume and proportion of the total phytoplankton biovolume. Both the experimental and observational results indicated a lower total phosphorus threshold for cyanobacterial bloom development in clearwater lakes (10-20 µg P L-1 ) than in humic lakes (20-30 µg P L-1 ). This finding provides management guidance for lakes receiving more nutrients and humic substances due to more frequent extreme weather events.

Innovative and practical tools for monitoring and assessing biodiversity status and impacts of multiple human pressures in marine systems.

Human activities at sea can produce pressures and cumulative effects on ecosystem components that need to be monitored and assessed in a cost-effective manner. Five Horizon European projects have joined forces to collaboratively increase our knowledge and skills to monitor and assess the ocean in an innovative way, assisting managers and policy-makers in taking decisions to maintain sustainable activities at sea. Here, we present and discuss the status of some methods revised during a summer school, aiming at better management of coasts and seas. We include novel methods to monitor the coastal and ocean waters (e.g. environmental DNA, drones, imaging and artificial intelligence, climate modelling and spatial planning) and innovative tools to assess the status (e.g. cumulative impacts assessment, multiple pressures, Nested Environmental status Assessment Tool (NEAT), ecosystem services assessment or a new unifying approach). As a concluding remark, some of the most important challenges ahead are assessing the pros and cons of novel methods, comparing them with benchmark technologies and integrating these into long-standing time series for data continuity. This requires transition periods and careful planning, which can be covered through an intense collaboration of current and future European projects on marine biodiversity and ecosystem health.

Quantifying seaweed and seagrass beach deposits using high-resolution UAV imagery.

Macroalgae and seagrass wash ashore by tidal waters and episodic events and create an ocean-to-land transport of carbon and nutrients. On land, these deposits (beach wrack) are consumed by macrofauna, remineralized by microorganisms, or washed back to the sea, during which recycling of carbon and nitrogen affect the biochemical cycles in coastal zones. Manual quantification of beach wracks is time-consuming and often difficult due to complex topography and remote locations. Here, we present a novel method using Unoccupied Aerial Vehicle (UAV) photogrammetry combined with in situ measurements of carbon and nitrogen contents of wrack to quantify marine carbon and nutrient deposits in beach zones. The UAV method was tested against placed cubes ranging from 125 to 88,218 cm3 and demonstrated a high accuracy (R2 > 0.99) for volume acquisition when compared to manual measurements. Also, the UAV-based assessments of the cross-sectional area of beach deposits demonstrated a high accuracy when compared to manual and high-precision GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) measurements without significant differences between the methods. This demonstrated that UAVs can provide detailed spatial maps, three-dimensional (3D) surface models, and accurate volumetric assessments of beach wrack deposits. In three case studies, combined with carbon and nitrogen measures, total organic carbon and nitrogen deposits in beach wracks were quantified ranging from 4.3 to 9.7 and from 0.3 to 0.5 kg per meter coastline, respectively. In conclusion, this UAV method demonstrated an effective tool to quantify ecosystem carbon and nitrogen deposits relevant to ecosystem assessments and quantification of blue carbon stocks. The method is optimal when the terrain below beach wrack deposits is known, as in the case with before-and-after or repeated surveys. Further, UAVs display strong time- and cost-effective advantages over manual methods which is amplified with increasing project scale. We propose it as a valuable method for multiple scientific and commercial applications related to environmental monitoring and management, including marine resource exploration and exploitation.

Drone and ground-truth data collection, image annotation and machine learning: A protocol for coastal habitat mapping and classification.

Aerial drone imaging is an efficient tool for mapping and monitoring of coastal habitats at high spatial and temporal resolution. Specifically, drone imaging allows for time- and cost-efficient mapping covering larger areas than traditional mapping and monitoring techniques, while also providing more detailed information than those from airplanes and satellites, enabling for example to differentiate various types of coastal vegetation. Here, we present a systematic method for shallow water habitat classification based on drone imagery. The method includes:•Collection of drone images and creation of orthomosaics.•Gathering ground-truth data in the field to guide the image annotation and to validate the final map product.•Annotation of drone images into - potentially hierarchical - habitat classes and training of machine learning algorithms for habitat classification.As a case study, we present a field campaign that employed these methods to map a coastal site dominated by seagrass, seaweed and kelp, in addition to sediments and rock. Such detailed but efficient mapping and classification can aid to understand and sustainably manage ecologically and valuable marine ecosystems.

Carbon stocks in Norwegian eelgrass meadows across environmental gradients.

Seagrass meadows are well-known for their capacity to capture and store blue carbon in sediments. However carbon stocks vary significantly between meadows, spanning more than three orders of magnitude on both local and global scales. Understanding the drivers of seagrass carbon stocks could help improve strategies for incorporating blue carbon into management plans. Here, we measured sediment carbon stocks in eelgrass (Zostera marina) meadows and unvegetated areas along the Norwegian coast, spanning wide gradients in temperature, wave exposure, water depth, salinity, and eelgrass biomass. Carbon stocks were generally higher in eelgrass meadows than in adjacent unvegetated areas, yet they displayed considerable variation (400 - 30 000 g C m-2 at 50 cm sediment depth) even among nearby sites. Overall, the highest carbon stocks were found in deeper, muddier, sheltered meadows near river mouths. These sites likely have the highest input and retention of carbon from different sources. Consequently, they should be prioritized as conservation targets for preserving coastal blue carbon stocks. Despite ever-increasing efforts to quantify seagrass blue carbon globally, high uncertainties still persist, partly due to differing methodologies, processes, and environmental context. Blue carbon stock estimates could be improved through the coordination of standardised mapping and sampling methods.

New insights into submarine tailing disposal for a reduced environmental footprint: Lessons learnt from Norwegian fjords.

Submarine tailing disposal (STD) in fjords from land-based mines is common practice in Norway and takes place in other regions worldwide. We synthesize the results of a multidisciplinary programme on environmental impacts of STDs in Norwegian fjords, providing new knowledge that can be applied to assess and mitigate impact of tailing disposal globally, both for submarine and deep-sea activities. Detailed geological seafloor mapping provided data on natural sedimentation to monitor depositional processes on the seafloor. Modelling and analytical techniques were used to assess the behaviour of tailing particles and process-chemicals in the environment, providing novel tools for monitoring. Toxicity tests showed biological impacts on test species due to particulate and chemical exposure. Hypersedimentation mesocosm and field experiments showed a varying response on the benthos, allowing to determine the transition zone in the STD impact area. Recolonisation studies indicate that full community recovery and normalisation of metal leakage rates may take several decades due to bioturbation and slow burial of sulfidic tailings. The results are synthesised to provide guidelines for the development of best available techniques for STDs.

Macrofaunal colonization of mine tailings impacted sediments.

An experiment was conducted to study and compare macrofaunal colonization of thin layers of mine tailings. Experimental boxes filled with marine sediments capped with mine tailings were placed on the seabed and subject to colonization for six and twelve months. Three Norwegian mine tailings, representative of major production processes, were used. In addition, one set of boxes served as control and was not treated with tailings. The layer thickness of the tailings was supposed to represent the thickness in the transition zone between the sea deposit itself and unaffected sediments. The most fine-grained tailings, which also contained flotation chemicals, showed a significantly lower colonization than the control and the other treatments. At the same time, all sediments were successfully colonized and rich in species. In general, the abundance of annelids was lower, while the abundance of mollusks was higher in the tailings-treatments than the controls. There were larger differences in faunal densities between the controls and tailings-treatments after six than twelve months, probably due to coverage by natural sedimentation and mixing of the thin tailings layer with the sediment underneath throughout the experiment. As the tailings initiated varying degree of effects on the benthos, there is expected to be a difference in how far the effects will extend outside the sea deposit. This is the first study where the colonization potential is systematically compared between various tailings, and as colonization is assumed a frequent and important mechanism for faunal restitution after disturbance events, the results are important for the management of tailings placements as well as with regard to other forms of disturbances associated with defaunated areas, like dredging and disposal of contaminated sediments.

Can multitrophic interactions and ocean warming influence large-scale kelp recovery?

Ongoing changes along the northeastern Atlantic coastline provide an opportunity to explore the influence of climate change and multitrophic interactions on the recovery of kelp. Here, vast areas of sea urchin-dominated barren grounds have shifted back to kelp forests, in parallel with changes in sea temperature and predator abundances. We have compiled data from studies covering more than 1,500-km coastline in northern Norway. The dataset has been used to identify regional patterns in kelp recovery and sea urchin recruitment, and to relate these to abiotic and biotic factors, including structurally complex substrates functioning as refuge for sea urchins. The study area covers a latitudinal gradient of temperature and different levels of predator pressure from the edible crab (Cancer pagurus) and the red king crab (Paralithodes camtschaticus). The population development of these two sea urchin predators and a possible predator on crabs, the coastal cod (Gadus morhua), were analyzed. In the southernmost and warmest region, kelp forests recovery and sea urchin recruitment are mainly low, although sea urchins might also be locally abundant. Further north, sea urchin barrens still dominate, and juvenile sea urchin densities are high. In the northernmost and cold region, kelp forests are recovering, despite high recruitment and densities of sea urchins. Here, sea urchins were found only in refuge habitats, whereas kelp recovery occurred mainly on open bedrock. The ocean warming, the increase in the abundance of edible crab in the south, and the increase in invasive red king crab in the north may explain the observed changes in kelp recovery and sea urchin distribution. The expansion of both crab species coincided with a population decline in the top-predator coastal cod. The role of key species (sea urchins, kelp, cod, and crabs) and processes involved in structuring the community are hypothesized in a conceptual model, and the knowledge behind the suggested links and interactions is explored.

Effects of submarine mine tailings on macrobenthic community structure and ecosystem processes.

A mesocosm experiment with intact benthic communities was conducted to evaluate the effects of mine tailings on benthic community structure and biogeochemical processes. Two types of tailings were supplied from process plants using flotation and flocculation chemicals, while a third type was absent of added chemicals. All tailings impacted the sediment community at thin layers, and through more mechanisms than merely hypersedimentation. In general, the strongest impact was observed in a very fine-grained tailings containing flotation chemicals. The second strongest occurred in tailings with no process chemicals. The tailings with flocculation chemicals initiated the weakest response. Fluxes of oxygen, nitrate and ammonium provided some indications on biodegradation of organic phases. Release of phosphate and silicate decreased with increasing layer thickness of all three tailings. A threshold level of 2cm was identified both for faunal responses and for fluxes of phosphate and silicate. The particular impact mechanisms should receive more attention in future studies in order to minimize the environmental risk associated with tailings disposal.

A snap shot of the short-term response of crustaceans to macrophyte detritus in the deep Oslofjord.

A test deployment of a time-lapse camera lander in the deep Oslofjord (431 m) was used to obtain initial information on the response of benthic fauna to macroalgal debris. Three macroalgal species were used on the lander baited plate: Fucus serratus, Saccharina latissima and Laminaria hyperborea and observed during 41.5 hours. The deep-water shrimp Pandalus borealis were attracted to the macroalgae rapidly (3 min after the lander reached the seafloor), followed by amphipods. Shrimp abundances were significantly higher in areas covered by macroalgae compared to the adjacent seafloor and the number of shrimp visiting the macroalgae increased with time. Amphipods arrived 13 hours later and were observed mainly on decaying L. hyperborea. The abundance of amphipods on L. hyperborea increased rapidly, reaching a peak at 31 h after deployment. These initial observations suggest that debris from kelp forests and other macroalgal beds may play an important role in fuelling deep benthic communities in the outer Oslofjord and, potentially, enhance secondary production of commercial species such as P. borealis.

New microsatellite loci for the green sea urchin Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis using universal M13 labelled markers.

BACKGROUND: The green sea urchin Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis has a wide circumpolar distribution and plays a key role in coastal ecosystems worldwide by destructively grazing macroalgae beds and turn them into marine deserts, so-called barren grounds. In the past decades, large established kelp forests have been overgrazed and transformed to such barren grounds on the Norwegian coast. This has important repercussions for the coastal diversity and production, including reproduction of several fish species relying on the kelp forests as nurseries. Genetic diversity is an important parameter for the study and further anticipation of this large scale phenomenon. FINDINGS: Microsatellites were developed using a Norwegian S. droebachiensis individual primarily for the study of Northeast Atlantic populations. The 10 new microsatellite loci were amplified using M13 forward tails, enabling the use of M13 fluorescent tagged primers for multiplex reading. Among these loci, 2 acted polysomic and should therefore not be considered useful for population genetic analysis. We screened 96 individuals sampled from 4 different sites along the Norwegian coast which have shown unexpected diversity. CONCLUSIONS: The new microsatellite loci should be a useful resource for further research into connectivity among S. droebachiensis populations, and assessing the risks for spreading and new overgrazing events.

The influence of physical factors on kelp and sea urchin distribution in previously and still grazed areas in the NE Atlantic.

The spatial distribution of kelp (Laminaria hyperborea) and sea urchins (Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis) in the NE Atlantic are highly related to physical factors and to temporal changes in temperature. On a large scale, we identified borders for kelp recovery and sea urchin persistence along the north-south gradient. Sea urchin persistence was also related to the coast-ocean gradient. The southern border corresponds to summer temperatures exceeding about 10°C, a threshold value known to be critical for sea urchin recruitment and development. The outer border along the coast-ocean gradient is related to temperature, wave exposure and salinity. On a finer scale, kelp recovery occurs mainly at ridges in outer, wave exposed, saline and warm areas whereas sea urchins still dominate in inner, shallow and cold areas, particularly in areas with optimal current speed for sea urchin foraging. In contrast to other studies in Europe, we here show a positive influence of climate change to presence of a long-lived climax canopy-forming kelp. The extent of the coast-ocean gradient varies within the study area, and is especially wide in the southern part where the presence of islands and skerries increases the area of the shallow coastal zone. This creates a large area with intermediate physical conditions for the two species and a mosaic of kelp and sea urchin dominated patches. The statistical models (GAM and BRT) show high performance and indicate recovery of kelp in 45-60% of the study area. The study shows the value of combining a traditional (GAM) and a more complex (BRT) modeling approach to gain insight into complex spatial patterns of species or habitats. The results, methods and approaches are of general ecological relevance regardless of ecosystems and species, although they are particularly relevant for understanding and exploring the corresponding changes between algae and grazers in different coastal areas.