Rapid treatment of vessels fouled with an invasive polychaete, Sabella spallanzanii, using a floating dock and chlorine as a biocide.

Chlorine solution was added to the water encapsulated within a proprietary 'floating dock' to treat a vessel infested with the invasive polychaete Sabella spallanzanii. The chlorine was added as sodium dichloroisocyanurate ('dichlor') at an initial concentration of 200 mg l(-1) of free available chlorine (FAC). This concentration killed 99% of S. spallanzanii in their tubes during a 4-h exposure in laboratory tests (EC99 160 mg FAC l(-1)). The concentration of FAC in the floating dock declined to ~50 mg l(-1) after 4 h and < 10 mg l(-1) after 16 h. Residual FAC was neutralised with thiosulphate at completion of exposure. A sample of 30 S. spallanzanii individuals collected from the hull after treatment all showed morphological damage and 28 showed no response to touch. Re-examination of the hull after 6 d found no live worms or other fouling organisms. This method provides a cost-effective, rapid means of treating hull fouling.

Human health risks of geothermally derived metals and other contaminants in wild-caught food.

Arsenic (As) and mercury (Hg) associated with geothermally influenced lakes and rivers represent a potential health risk to communities where wild-caught food is consumed. The Rotorua Lakes region of New Zealand has extensive natural geothermal activity and a large proportion (35%) of indigenous Maori population, for whom wild food gathering is an important cultural activity. The aim of this study was to measure selected heavy metal and organochlorine (OC) concentrations in important local fish and shellfish species and assess the potential health risk to the local population of consuming these species. Following U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) protocols, consumption limits were calculated based on both excess lifetime cancer risk and noncancer risk. These were compared with local consumption rates, which were determined by questionnaire (n = 19). Median and 95th percentile contaminant concentrations were calculated to approximate random and most extreme contaminant consumption scenarios. Only Hg concentrations exceeded established Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ) guideline values of 0.5 mg/kg, namely, for rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss; 62% of the study sites) and koura (freshwater crayfish; Paranephrops planifrons; 25% of sites). The major risk was from consumption of trout, where the local consumption rate (1.5 meals/mo) exceeded the consumption limit of 0.9 meals/mo (median data) and 0.4 meals/mo (95th percentile data). Shellfish--pipi (Paphies australis) and mussel (Perna canaliculus)--collected from the only estuarine site also had local consumption rates (3.5 meals/mo) above calculated consumption limits (2.6 and 2.9 meals/mo, respectively). Our results, while based on a limited sample size and therefore exploratory in nature, nevertheless provide the basis for developing consumption guidelines. This study makes a significant contribution to broadening our understanding of the complexities of managing customary fisheries.

Acute toxicity of copper, zinc, and ammonia to larvae (Glochidia) of a native freshwater mussel Echyridella menziesii in New Zealand.

Adult New Zealand freshwater mussel Echyridella menziesii were collected from three locations in the North Island of New Zealand. In a series of tests that followed standard test guidance, glochidia were exposed to either dissolved copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), or total ammonia nitrogen (TAN) for 6, 24, or 48 h (20 °C, pH 7.8, water hardness 30 mg L(-1) as CaCO3, dissolved organic carbon [DOC] 2.0-2.9 mg L(-1)). Of the three contaminants and tests that met control survival criteria, mussel larvae (glochidia) were most sensitive to Cu exposure (48-h EC50 = 1.7-3.4 µg L(-1), 48-h no observed effect concentrations (NOEC) of 1.3-2.6 µg L(-1)). The Zn 48-h EC50 concentrations were 229-337 µg L(-1) and the 48-h NOEC values were 128-240 µg L(-1). Compared with other native New Zealand species, glochidia were also relatively sensitive to TAN exposure (48-h EC50 12-15 mg TAN L(-1) [pH 7.8], 48-h NOEC 8-10 mg TAN L(-1)). Comparison of our data with those of previous studies on North American freshwater mussels indicates that (1) E. menziesii are among those aquatic species most sensitive to acute Cu or TAN exposure; and (2) E. menziesii juveniles would not be adequately protected by current ANZECC water quality guidelines for TAN or Cu. Inclusion of North American juvenile mussel data in a revision of the current ANZECC water-quality guideline (95th percentile) for chronic ammonia exposure results in a decrease from 0.9 mg to 0.2 mg TAN L(-1) (pH 8).

Sensitivities of Australian and New Zealand amphipods to copper and zinc in waters and metal-spiked sediments.

The sensitivities of eight benthic amphipods, Chaetocorophium cf. lucasi, Corophium colo, Grandidierella japonica, Hyale crassicornis, Hyale longicornis, Melita awa, Melita matilda and Melita plumulosa, to copper and zinc in water-only and whole-sediment toxicity tests were compared. Whole-sediment tests used copper- (1300 mg/kg) and zinc- (4000 mg/kg) spiked sediments after equilibration for sufficient time to produce pore water and overlying water concentrations below the lowest observable effect concentrations of water-only exposures. Survival of adults (after 10 d) and juveniles (after 96 h), and the metal concentrations in the body tissues of adults, were determined at the end of the tests. Two epibenthic amphipods from the genus Melita were the most sensitive species to aqueous copper and zinc, with a 96-h LC50 value of 120 microg Cu/l for both M. awa and M. plumulosa juveniles, and a 96-h LC50 value of 640 microg Zn/l for juveniles of M. plumulosa. Juvenile amphipods (7-d old) were more sensitive than adult amphipods (>30-d old) in both water-only and whole-sediment tests, with adult-LC50/juvenile-LC50 ratios in water-only tests ranging from 1.2 to l.5 for copper and 1 to 1.4 for zinc. All species except C. colo, C. cf. lucasi and M. matilda were sensitive to the copper-spiked sediment, with survival between 14% and 74% of controls. Similarly, all species except C. colo and G. japonica, showed a response to the zinc-spiked sediment (26-81% of control survival). The epibenthic amphipods were more sensitive than the infaunal tube-dwelling amphipods and are recommended as test species.

Preliminary investigations of toxicity in the Georges Bay catchment, Tasmania, Australia.

North-eastern Tasmania, Australia has been an area of major production for Pacific oysters (Crassostrea gigas) for over 25 years. Since the mid-1990s, increased oyster mortality has been observed. The purpose of the present study was to identify the agent causing aquatic toxicity and to investigate whether there is a chemical and/or toxicological link between river foam and monoculture timber plantation forests of exotic eucalypts (Eucalyptus nitens) present in the catchment area. Foam samples from the George River catchment demonstrated high toxicity to a freshwater cladoceran and larvae of a marine blue mussel species. After filtration to remove most particulates, foam samples also demonstrated a marked reduction in toxicity to blue mussels, which suggested that the toxicity is particle associated. Foam and leaf extracts of E. nitens were then fractionated using HPLC and size exclusion chromatography and the resulting fractions were screened for cladoceran and blue mussel toxicity. Toxicity was detected in fractions common to both the foam and the leaf extracts. This study suggests that there may be a chemical and toxicological relationship between foam and E. nitens leaf components.

Response of macroinvertebrates to copper and zinc in a stream mesocosm.

Metal pollution of streams and rivers is recognized as one of the major concerns for management of freshwaters. Macroinvertebrate communities were established within 12 artificial streams and exposed to three replicated concentrations of a metals mixture (copper and zinc) for 34 d. The cumulative criterion units (CCU = sigma[metals]/hardness-adjusted U.S. Environmental Protection Agency [U.S. EPA] 1996 chronic criterion value) of total metals in the low, medium, and high treatments were 2.4, 5.9, and 18 CCUs. Zinc comprised approximately 75% of the CCUs in each of the treatments. Effects on taxa richness and the number of taxa in the orders Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera (EPT) were moderate at the high exposure concentration (-23% and -26% respectively, p < 0.05). All of the five major mayfly species showed near extinction, whereas four of the seven caddisflies showed stimulation (up to +121%) and three were reduced (up to -76%). Redundancy analysis for this metal gradient indicated that 94% of the variance in community structure was explained by three quantitative variables: total mayfly abundance, a mollusk (Potamopyrgus antipodarum) abundance, and the number of EPT individuals, indicating that multiple indices do provide improved predictors of metal stress. Most species showed a threshold response relationship, whereas some community indicators showed apparent hormetic responses (e.g., number of mayfly taxa, total taxa, and number of EPT taxa). Model concentration-response relationships with generalized linear models were used to provide threshold of 20% effective concentration values for species and community metrics. Threshold effect values ranged upwards of 1.4 CCUs, indicating that U.S. EPA chronic criteria would be protective of species and community responses.

Mercury biomagnification in three geothermally-influenced lakes differing in chemistry and algal biomass.

Accumulation of Hg in aquatic organisms is influenced not only by the contaminant load but also by various environmental variables. We compared biomagnification of Hg in aquatic organisms, i.e., the rate at which Hg accumulates with increasing trophic position, in three lakes differing in trophic state. Total Hg (THg) concentrations in food webs were compared in an oligotrophic, a mesotrophic and a eutrophic lake with naturally elevated levels of Hg associated with geothermal water inputs. We explored relationships of physico-chemistry attributes of lakes with Hg concentrations in fish and biomagnification in the food web. Trophic positions of biota and food chain length were distinguished by stable isotope (15)N. As expected, THg in phytoplankton decreased with increasing eutrophication, suggesting the effect of biomass dilution. In contrast, THg biomagnification and THg concentrations in trout were controlled by environmental physico-chemistry and were highest in the eutrophic lake. In the more eutrophic lake frequent anoxia occurred, resulting in favorable conditions for Hg transfer into and up the food chain. The average concentration of THg in the top predator (rainbow trout) exceeded the maximum recommended level for consumption by up to 440%. While there were differences between lakes in food chain length between plankton and trout, THg concentration in trout did not increase with food chain length, suggesting other factors were more important. Differences between the lakes in biomagnification and THg concentration in trout correlated as expected from previous studies with eight physicochemical variables, resulting in enhanced biomagnification of THg in the eutrophic lake.

A survey of emerging contaminants in the estuarine receiving environment around Auckland, New Zealand.

Increasing urbanisation in the future will put mounting stresses on the receiving environments around those urban centres due to increased sedimentation and contaminant runoff. Emerging contaminants (ECs) are an extensive array of chemicals and many are not under regulatory action. Within New Zealand likely future pressures from ECs will be in both urban centres and rural areas due to intensive agriculture, although at present there is a lack of information on the state of the environment in both sectors. This study was initiated to gauge the distribution of ECs in the urban environment by measuring concentrations of flame retardants, plasticisers, alkylphenols, herbicides and pesticides, steroid oestrogens, pharmaceuticals and heavy metals in sediment from 13 estuarine sites around Auckland, New Zealand's biggest city. Total polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) flame retardant concentrations ((7)ΣPBDE) ranged from 0.55 to 573 ng/g (dw). The phthalate plasticiser di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) was measured at up to 11,500 ng/g from one site. Nonylphenol (NP) was found at up to 32,000 ng/g at one site adjacent to the city's major wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). However, median concentrations of NP were 153 ng/g, suggesting this site was not representative of the region. Nonylphenol mono- and di-ethoxylates (NPEO1,2) had highest concentrations (1600 ng/g) at a marina. Highest glyphosate concentrations (up to 950 ng/g) were observed at residential sites. Steroid oestrogens were detected at extremely low concentrations (maximum 2.2 ng/g), while all other pesticides or herbicides were not detected at any sites. Multi-residue analysis of 46 pharmaceuticals showed presence of 21 compounds at one or more sites, with average concentrations ranging from 0.16 to 7.66 ng/g. Generally, environmental concentrations of ECs were similar to those reported world-wide. However, comparisons for pharmaceuticals were problematic, due to very few studies on pharmaceutical concentrations in estuarine sediments, with most focussed on sewage and stream water phases.

Implications of global climate change for natural resource damage assessment, restoration, and rehabilitation.

Various international and national regulations hold polluters liable for the cleanup of released hazardous substances and the restoration/rehabilitation of natural resources to preincident baseline conditions, a process often referred to as natural resource damage assessment and restoration (NRDAR). Here, we, the authors, describe how global climate change (GCC) will challenge each of the steps of NRDAR processes and offer eight recommendations to improve these processes in light of GCC. First, we call for a better understanding of the net effects of GCC and contaminants on natural resources. Second, we urge facilities and environmental managers to plan for GCC-related factors that are expected to increase the probability of contaminant releases. Third, we suggest re-evaluating definitions of baseline and reference conditions given that GCC will alter both their trajectories and variability. Fourth, we encourage long-term monitoring to improve the quantification of baseline conditions that will change as climate changes. This will enhance the accuracy of injury assessments, the effectiveness of restoration, and the detection of early warning signs that ecosystems are approaching tipping points. Fifth, in response to or anticipation of GCC, restoration projects may need to be conducted in areas distant from the site of injury or focused on functionally equivalent natural resources; thus, community involvement in NRDAR processes will be increasingly important. Sixth, we promote using NRDAR restoration projects as opportunities to mitigate GCC-related impacts. Seventh, we recommend adaptive management approaches to NRDAR processes and communication of successes and failures widely. Finally, we recommend focusing on managing the stressors that might be exacerbated by GCC, such as pollution and habitat loss, because there is a long history of successfully mitigating these stressors, which can be more easily managed on local scales than climate change. We believe that adoption of these recommendations will lead to a more efficacious NRDAR process, despite the challenges posed by climate change.

Organochlorines and heavy metals in wild caught food as a potential human health risk to the indigenous Maori population of South Canterbury, New Zealand.

Increasing concentrations of anthropogenic contaminants in wild kai (food) of cultural, recreational and economic importance to the indigenous Maori of New Zealand is a potential human health risk. Contaminants that are known to bioaccumulate through the food chain (e.g., organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), PCBs and selected heavy metals) were analysed in important kai species including eel (Anguilla sp.), brown trout (Salmo trutta), black flounder (Rhombosolea retiaria) and watercress (Nasturtium officinale) from important harvesting sites in the region of South Canterbury. Eels contained relatively high wet weight concentrations of p,p'-DDE (8.6-287ng/g), PCBs ((32)Σ(PCB); 0.53-58.3ng/g), dieldrin (<0.05-16.3ng/g) and Σchlordanes (0.03-10.6ng/g). Trout and flounder contained lower concentrations of organochlorines than eels, with p,p'-DDE wet weight concentrations ranging from 2.2 to 18.5ng/g for trout and 6.4 to 27.8ng/g for flounder. Total arsenic wet weight concentrations were below detection limits for eels but ranged from 0.27 to 0.89µg/g for trout and 0.12 to 0.56µg/g for flounder. Mercury concentrations ranged from 0.02 to 0.56µg/g, 0.11 to 0.50µg/g and 0.04 to 0.10µg/g (ww) for eel, trout and flounder respectively. Lifetime excess cancer risk was calculated through established risk assessment procedures, highlighting dieldrin, ΣPCBs and p,p'-DDE in eels and arsenic in trout and flounder as primary contaminants of concern. A second non-cancer chronic health risk assessment indicated that mercury and PCBs were a potential concern in eels and mercury in trout. A cumulative lifetime cancer risk assessment showed potential health risk for consumption of some species, even at low consumption rates and provided the basis for establishing recommended dietary consumption limits for harvest sites within the study region.

Pulse-dose application of chelated copper to a river for Didymosphenia geminata control: effects on macroinvertebrates and fish.

A 1-h pulse-dose of a chelated Cu formulation (Gemex™; New Zealand) was applied to a river to test efficacy against the invasive mat-forming diatom Didymosphenia geminata (didymo) and to provide information on nontarget species effects that could not be adequately predicted from laboratory and experimental mesocosm studies. Intensive sampling allowed characterization of doses achieved at multiple downstream locations, and concurrent application of rhodamine dye allowed quantification of dispersion, adsorption, and dilution processes. The target dose of 10 to 20 mg Cu/L for 60 min was achieved at least 0.9 km downstream at sites with contrasting levels of didymo mat development. Adsorptive losses of Gemex were 12%/km where didymo was mostly nonvisible and approximately 36%/km where substantial didymo mats were present. At 0.9 km downstream, Cu concentrations peaked at 12 mg/L, and didymo was <5% viable (down from 65-72%) for ≥21 d posttreatment. Viability data indicate that elimination of nonvisible infestations is possible and that suppression of early-stage infestations (≤40% cover, ≤4.5 mm thick) could be achieved after repeated applications. After a single Gemex application, no significant accumulation of Cu was noted in the sediments six weeks posttreatment, but Cu concentrations remained high in algal mats (109-367 mg/kg dry wt). Long-term effects on the nontarget algal, invertebrate, or fish communities were minimal, although significant localized trout mortalities, not predicted by prior laboratory exposures, occurred on the treatment day. Extended Gemex exposure in low-hardness waters might have caused the mortalities, although changes in chelated Cu speciation also possibly contributed. The present study integrates effects on resident biota with dosage data, including changes in pH, in a natural waterway.

Sensitivity of juvenile Macomona liliana (bivalvia) to UV-photoactivated fluoranthene toxicity.

This study assessed the sensitivity of Macomona liliana (bivalvia, tellinacea) to UV-photoactivated fluoranthene toxicity. Juvenile clams (0.5-2.0 mm) were exposed to a range of aqueous fluoranthene concentrations (5-500 microg/L) for 96 h, after which the clams' ability to rebury in control sediment was determined. Survivors of these fluoranthene-only toxicity tests were then exposed in clean seawater to UV radiation from a solar radiation-simulating light source for 1 h. The differences between EC(50) values before and after UV exposure provided a measure of phototoxicity of the bioaccumulated fluoranthene. Fluoranthene tissue burdens corresponding to the EC(50) values were determined by exposing a second batch of clams to (14)C-radiolabeled fluoranthene. A third experiment quantified the kinetics of fluoranthene uptake and elimination in water-only exposures. Fluoranthene phototoxicity was found to depend on the dose of fluoranthene and the duration of UV exposure. Exposure of animals to 1 h of UV radiation resulted fluoranthene toxicity that was 3 times higher (EC(50) = 46 microg/L) than that of those with no UV exposure (EC(50) = 153 microg/L). The corresponding critical body burden (i.e., fluoranthene tissue concentration at which 50% of the clams failed to rebury) was 6 ng/clam (or 700 microg/g dry weight [dw]) and 21 ng/clam (or 2300 microg/g dw) for UV-exposed and UV-unexposed animals, respectively. First-order uptake and elimination coefficients, determined in the kinetics experiment, were 0.825 Lg(-1) h(-1) and 0.059 h(-1), respectively, indicating rapid uptake and a short fluoranthene tissue half-life of approximately 12 h for M. liliana. Compared with other bivalve species of similar size, M. liliana appeared to be more than 1 order of magnitude less sensitive to UV-activated fluoranthene toxicity, although these differences may be a result in part of differences in the UV exposure regime. Nonetheless, the majority of M. liliana exposed to a fluoranthene concentration of 50 microg/L displayed evidence of UV-photoactivated toxicity within 30-60 min of irradiation, and prolonging UV exposure more than 2 h killed all clams. These results demonstrate that even short UV exposures, as perhaps encountered during normal feeding or byssus-drifting behavior, may significantly increase toxicity to juvenile M. liliana possessing elevated fluoranthene tissue concentrations.