Evaluation and Management of Pediatric Concussion in the Acute Setting.

ABSTRACT: Concussion, a type of mild traumatic brain injury, is a common injury encountered by providers caring for pediatric patients in the emergency department (ED) setting. Our understanding of the pathophysiologic basis for symptom and recovery trajectories for pediatric concussion continues to rapidly evolve. As this understanding changes, so do recommendations for optimal management of concussed youth. As more and more children present to EDs across the country for concussion, it is imperative that providers caring for children in these settings remain up-to-date with diagnostic recommendations and management techniques. This article will review the definition, epidemiology, pathophysiology, diagnosis, and management of pediatric concussion in the ED setting.

Pediatric Mild Traumatic Brain Injury in the Acute Setting.

Pediatric mild traumatic brain injuries, most of which are concussions, are an increasingly common reason for presentation to emergency departments. The diagnosis of concussion has increased dramatically over the past decade, necessitating the acute care provider to have up-to-date knowledge of the definition, pathophysiology, signs and symptoms, physical examination findings, and acute management of pediatric concussion. This article also addresses populations most vulnerable to prolonged recovery from pediatric concussion and referral recommendations.

Occult pneumococcal bacteremia: a review.

Occult bacteremia is primarily caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae and has been an intense clinical controversy in pediatric emergency medicine, with passionate opinions rendered from inside and outside the field. Vaccine development and widespread immunization have rapidly affected the changing epidemiology of this disease. There is a growing consensus that the reduction in incidence of occult bacteremia and the significant problem of antibiotic resistance are tipping the balance in favor of no testing and no treatment for well-appearing febrile children between 6 and 36 months of age who are immunized with Haemophilus influenzae B vaccination and PCV-7 (pneumococcal conjugate vaccine). This review of occult pneumococcal bacteremia will not only elaborate on current knowledge and clinical practice, but will also provide historical context to this fascinating phenomenon.

The diagnosis and management of acute otitis media.

This evidence-based clinical practice guideline is a revision of the 2004 acute otitis media (AOM) guideline from the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) and American Academy of Family Physicians. It provides recommendations to primary care clinicians for the management of children from 6 months through 12 years of age with uncomplicated AOM. In 2009, the AAP convened a committee composed of primary care physicians and experts in the fields of pediatrics, family practice, otolaryngology, epidemiology, infectious disease, emergency medicine, and guideline methodology. The subcommittee partnered with the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality and the Southern California Evidence-Based Practice Center to develop a comprehensive review of the new literature related to AOM since the initial evidence report of 2000. The resulting evidence report and other sources of data were used to formulate the practice guideline recommendations. The focus of this practice guideline is the appropriate diagnosis and initial treatment of a child presenting with AOM. The guideline provides a specific, stringent definition of AOM. It addresses pain management, initial observation versus antibiotic treatment, appropriate choices of antibiotic agents, and preventive measures. It also addresses recurrent AOM, which was not included in the 2004 guideline. Decisions were made on the basis of a systematic grading of the quality of evidence and benefit-harm relationships. The practice guideline underwent comprehensive peer review before formal approval by the AAP. This clinical practice guideline is not intended as a sole source of guidance in the management of children with AOM. Rather, it is intended to assist primary care clinicians by providing a framework for clinical decision-making. It is not intended to replace clinical judgment or establish a protocol for all children with this condition. These recommendations may not provide the only appropriate approach to the management of this problem.

Oral versus intravenous rehydration of moderately dehydrated children: a randomized, controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Dehydration from viral gastroenteritis is a significant pediatric health problem. Oral rehydration therapy (ORT) is recommended as first-line therapy for both mildly and moderately dehydrated children; however, three quarters of pediatric emergency medicine physicians who are very familiar with the American Academy of Pediatrics recommendations for ORT still use intravenous fluid therapy (IVF) for moderately dehydrated children. OBJECTIVE: To test the hypothesis that the failure rate of ORT would not be >5% greater than the failure rate of IVF. Secondary hypotheses were that patients in the ORT group will (1) require less time initiating therapy, (2) show more improvement after 2 hours of therapy, (3) have fewer hospitalizations, and (4) prefer ORT for future episodes of dehydration. METHODS: A randomized, controlled clinical trial (noninferiority study design) was performed in the emergency department of an urban children's hospital from December 2001 to April 2003. Children 8 weeks to 3 years old were eligible if they were moderately dehydrated, based on a validated 10-point score, from viral gastroenteritis. Patients were randomized to receive either ORT or IVF during the 4-hour study. Treating physicians were masked and assessed all patients before randomization at 2 and 4 hours of therapy. Successful rehydration at 4 hours was defined as resolution of moderate dehydration, production of urine, weight gain, and the absence severe emesis (> or =5 mL/kg). RESULTS: Seventy-three patients were enrolled in the study: 36 were randomized to ORT and 37 were randomized to IVF. Baseline dehydration scores and the number of prior episodes of emesis and diarrhea were similar in the 2 groups. ORT demonstrated noninferiority for the main outcome measure and was found to be favorable with secondary outcomes. Half of both the ORT and IVF groups were rehydrated successfully at 4 hours (difference: -1.2%; 95% confidence interval [CI]: -24.0% to 21.6%). The time required to initiate therapy was less in the ORT group at 19.9 minutes from randomization, compared with 41.2 minutes for the IVF group (difference: -21.2 minutes; 95% CI: -10.3 to -32.1 minutes). There was no difference in the improvement of the dehydration score at 2 hours between the 2 groups (78.8% ORT vs 80% IVF; difference: -1.2%; 95% CI: -20.5% to 18%). Less than one third of the ORT group required hospitalization, whereas almost half of the IVF group was hospitalized (30.6% vs 48.7%, respectively; difference: -18.1%; 95% CI: -40.1% to 4.0%). Patients who received ORT were as likely as those who received IVF to prefer the same therapy for the next episode of gastroenteritis (61.3% vs 51.4%, respectively; difference: 9.9%; 95% CI: -14% to 33.7%). CONCLUSIONS: This trial demonstrated that ORT is as effective as IVF for rehydration of moderately dehydrated children due to gastroenteritis in the emergency department. ORT demonstrated noninferiority for successful rehydration at 4 hours and hospitalization rate. Additionally, therapy was initiated more quickly for ORT patients. ORT seems to be a preferred treatment option for patients with moderate dehydration from gastroenteritis.