Groundwater oxygen anomaly related to the 2016 Kumamoto earthquake in Southwest Japan.

Here, we report the groundwater oxygen isotope anomalies caused by the 2016 Kumamoto earthquake (MJMA7.3) that occurred in Southwest Japan on April 16, 2016. One hundred and seventeen groundwater samples were collected from a deep well located 3 km to the southeast of the epicenter in Mifune Town, Kumamoto Prefecture; they were drinking water packed in PET bottles and distributed in the area between April 2015 and March 2018. Further, the oxygen and hydrogen isotopes were evaluated via cavity ring-down spectroscopy without performing any pretreatment. An anomalous increase was observed with respect to the δ18O value (up to 0.51‰) soon after the earthquake along with a precursory increase of 0.38‰ in January 2016 before the earthquake. During these periods, there was no noticeable change in the hydrogen isotopic ratios. Rapid crustal deformation related to the earthquake may have enhanced the microfracturing of the aquifer rocks and the production of new surfaces, inducing δ18O enrichment via oxygen isotopic exchange between rock and porewater without changing δ2H.

Estimation of the depth of origin of fluids using noble gases in the surface sediments of submarine mud volcanoes off Tanegashima Island.

The helium isotope ratio (3He/4He), concentration ratio of neon-20 to helium-4 (20Ne/4He), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), and xenon (Xe) concentrations were measured in the porewater of surface sediments of several submarine mud volcanoes. From the 3He/4He values (0.18-0.93RA), the estimated He origin is almost 90% crustal He, with little contribution from mantle-derived He. The determined Ar, Kr, and Xe concentrations lie within the solubility equilibrium range expected for temperatures from 83 °C up to 230 °C and are consistent with the temperature range of the dehydration origin of clay minerals. Considering the geothermal gradient in the investigated region (25 °C/km), these gases are considered to have reached dissolution equilibrium at a depth of about 3.3 km to 9.2 km below the seafloor. As the depth of the plate boundary is 18 km below the seafloor, the noble gas signatures are likely to originate from the crust, not from the plate boundary. This is consistent with the results presented by the He isotope ratios.

Nitrogen isotope evidence for Earth's heterogeneous accretion of volatiles.

The origin of major volatiles nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, and sulfur in planets is critical for understanding planetary accretion, differentiation, and habitability. However, the detailed process for the origin of Earth's major volatiles remains unresolved. Nitrogen shows large isotopic fractionations among geochemical and cosmochemical reservoirs, which could be used to place tight constraints on Earth's volatile accretion process. Here we experimentally determine N-partitioning and -isotopic fractionation between planetary cores and silicate mantles. We show that the core/mantle N-isotopic fractionation factors, ranging from -4‰ to +10‰, are strongly controlled by oxygen fugacity, and the core/mantle N-partitioning is a multi-function of oxygen fugacity, temperature, pressure, and compositions of the core and mantle. After applying N-partitioning and -isotopic fractionation in a planetary accretion and core-mantle differentiation model, we find that the N-budget and -isotopic composition of Earth's crust plus atmosphere, silicate mantle, and the mantle source of oceanic island basalts are best explained by Earth's early accretion of enstatite chondrite-like impactors, followed by accretion of increasingly oxidized impactors and minimal CI chondrite-like materials before and during the Moon-forming giant impact. Such a heterogeneous accretion process can also explain the carbon-hydrogen-sulfur budget in the bulk silicate Earth. The Earth may thus have acquired its major volatile inventory heterogeneously during the main accretion phase.

NanoSIMS Analysis of Rare Earth Elements in Silicate Glass and Zircon: Implications for Partition Coefficients.

We have developed a method to analyze all rare earth elements in silicate glasses and zircon minerals using a high lateral resolution secondary ion mass spectrometer (NanoSIMS). A 2nA O- primary beam was used to sputter a 7-8-µm diameter crater on the sample surface, and secondary positive ions were extracted for mass analysis using an accelerating voltage of 8 kV. A high mass resolving power of 9,400 at 10% peak height was attained to separate heavy REE from oxide of light REE. A multi-collector system combined with peak-jumping by magnetic field was adjusted to detect REEs and silicon-30 for calibration. Based on results of NIST SRM610 glass, sensitivities of REEs vary from 3 cps/ppm/nA of Lu to 13 cps/ppm/nA of Eu. Reproducibility of REE/Si ratios is better than 18% at 2σ. Secondary ion yields of REEs show positive relationships with their ionization potential of second valence. REEs of AS3, QGNG, and Torihama zircons were measured and calibrated against those of 91500 standard zircon. SIYs of REEs of zircon are identical to those of the glass standard. AS3 and QGNG data are generally consistent with those of previous work. Torihama REE data combined with the whole rock data provide partition coefficients of REEs between silicate melt and zircon. The relationship between these coefficients and ionic radius is explained by an elastic moduli model.

Influence of normal tide and the Great Tsunami as recorded through hourly-resolution micro-analysis of a mussel shell.

We report here hourly variations of Mg/Ca, Sr/Ca, and Ba/Ca ratios in a Mediterranean mussel shell (Mytilus galloprovincialis) collected at the Otsuchi bay, on the Pacific coast of northeastern Japan. This bivalve was living in the intertidal zone, where such organisms are known to form a daily or bidaily growth line comprised of abundant organic matter. Mg/Ca ratios of the inner surface of the outer shell layer, corresponding to the most recent date, show cyclic changes at 25-90 µm intervals, while no interpretable variations are observed in Sr/Ca and Ba/Ca ratios. High Mg/Ca ratios were probably established by (1) cessation of the external supply of Ca and organic layer forming when the shell is closed at low tide, and (2) the strong binding of Mg to the organic layer, but not of Sr and Ba. Immediately following the great tsunami induced by the 2011 Tohoku earthquake, Mg/Ca enrichment occurred, up to 10 times that of normal low tide, while apparent Ba/Ca enrichment was observed for only a few days following the event, therefore serving a proxy of the past tsunami. Following the tsunami, periodic peaks and troughs in Mg/Ca continued, perhaps due to a biological memory effect as an endogenous clock.

Mantle-derived helium released through the Japan trench bend-faults.

Plate bending-related normal faults (i.e. bend-faults) develop at the outer trench-slope of the oceanic plate incoming into the subduction zone. Numerous geophysical studies and numerical simulations suggest that bend-faults play a key role by providing pathways for seawater to flow into the oceanic crust and the upper mantle, thereby promoting hydration of the oceanic plate. However, deep penetration of seawater along bend-faults remains controversial because fluids that have percolated down into the mantle are difficult to detect. This report presents anomalously high helium isotope (3He/4He) ratios in sediment pore water and seismic reflection data which suggest fluid infiltration into the upper mantle and subsequent outflow through bend-faults across the outer slope of the Japan trench. The 3He/4He and 4He/20Ne ratios at sites near-trench bend-faults, which are close to the isotopic ratios of bottom seawater, are almost constant with depth, supporting local seawater inflow. Our findings provide the first reported evidence for a potentially large-scale active hydrothermal circulation system through bend-faults across the Moho (crust-mantle boundary) in and out of the oceanic lithospheric mantle.

Mantle degassing along strike-slip faults in the Southeastern Korean Peninsula.

On September 12, 2016, a ML 5.8 earthquake hit Gyeongju in the southeastern part of the Korean Peninsula (SeKP), although the area is known to be far from the boundary of the active plate. A number of strike-slip faults are observed in heavily populated city areas (e.g., Busan, Ulsan, Pohang, and Gyeongju). However, dissolved gases related to the active faults have rarely been studied despite many groundwater wells and hot springs in the area. Here we report new results of gas compositions and isotope values of helium and carbon dioxide (CO2) in fault-related fluids in the region. Based on gas geochemistry, the majority of gas samples are abundant in CO2 (up to 99.91 vol.%). Measured 3He/4He ratios range from 0.07 to 5.66 Ra, showing that the mantle contribution is up to 71%. The range of carbon isotope compositions (δ13C) of CO2 is from -8.25 to -24.92‰, showing mantle-derived CO2 is observed coherently where high 3He/4He ratios appear. The weakening of faults seems to be related to enhanced pressures of fluids containing mantle-derived helium and CO2 despite the ductile lower crust underneath the region. Thus, we suggest that the SeKP strike-slip faults penetrate into the mantle through ductile shearing.

Groundwater oxygen isotope anomaly before the M6.6 Tottori earthquake in Southwest Japan.

Geochemical monitoring of groundwater in seismically-active regions has been carried out since 1970s. Precursors were well documented, but often criticized for anecdotal or fragmentary signals, and for lacking a clear physico-chemical explanation for these anomalies. Here we report - as potential seismic precursor - oxygen isotopic ratio anomalies of +0.24‰ relative to the local background measured in groundwater, a few months before the Tottori earthquake (M 6.6) in Southwest Japan. Samples were deep groundwater located 5 km west of the epicenter, packed in bottles and distributed as drinking water between September 2015 and July 2017, a time frame which covers the pre- and post-event. Small but substantial increase of 0.07‰ was observed soon after the earthquake. Laboratory crushing experiments of aquifer rock aimed to simulating rock deformation under strain and tensile stresses were carried out. Measured helium degassing from the rock and 18O-shift suggest that the co-seismic oxygen anomalies are directly related to volumetric strain changes. The findings provide a plausible physico-chemical basis to explain geochemical anomalies in water and may be useful in future earthquake prediction research.

Origin of methane-rich natural gas at the West Pacific convergent plate boundary.

Methane emission from the geosphere is generally characterized by a radiocarbon-free signature and might preserve information on the deep carbon cycle on Earth. Here we report a clear relationship between the origin of methane-rich natural gases and the geodynamic setting of the West Pacific convergent plate boundary. Natural gases in the frontal arc basin (South Kanto gas fields, Northeast Japan) show a typical microbial signature with light carbon isotopes, high CH4/C2H6 and CH4/3He ratios. In the Akita-Niigata region - which corresponds to the slope stretching from the volcanic-arc to the back-arc -a thermogenic signature characterize the gases, with prevalence of heavy carbon isotopes, low CH4/C2H6 and CH4/3He ratios. Natural gases from mud volcanoes in South Taiwan at the collision zone show heavy carbon isotopes, middle CH4/C2H6 ratios and low CH4/3He ratios. On the other hand, those from the Tokara Islands situated on the volcanic front of Southwest Japan show the heaviest carbon isotopes, middle CH4/C2H6 ratios and the lowest CH4/3He ratios. The observed geochemical signatures of natural gases are clearly explained by a mixing of microbial, thermogenic and abiotic methane. An increasing contribution of abiotic methane towards more tectonically active regions of the plate boundary is suggested.

Groundwater helium anomaly reflects strain change during the 2016 Kumamoto earthquake in Southwest Japan.

Geochemical monitoring of groundwater and soil gas emission pointed out precursor and/or coseismic anomalies of noble gases associated with earthquakes, but there was lack of plausible physico-chemical basis. A laboratory experiment of rock fracturing and noble gas emission was conducted, but there is no quantitative connection between the laboratory results and observation in field. We report here deep groundwater helium anomalies related to the 2016 Kumamoto earthquake, which is an inland crustal earthquake with a strike-slip fault and a shallow hypocenter (10 km depth) close to highly populated areas in Southwest Japan. The observed helium isotope changes, soon after the earthquake, are quantitatively coupled with volumetric strain changes estimated from a fault model, which can be explained by experimental studies of helium degassing during compressional loading of rock samples. Groundwater helium is considered as an effective strain gauge. This suggests the first quantitative linkage between geochemical and seismological observations and may open the possibility to develop a new monitoring system to detect a possible strain change prior to a hazardous earthquake in regions where conventional borehole strain meter is not available.

Helium and methane sources and fluxes of shallow submarine hydrothermal plumes near the Tokara Islands, Southern Japan.

Shallow submarine volcanoes have been newly discovered near the Tokara Islands, which are situated at the volcanic front of the northern Ryukyu Arc in southern Japan. Here, we report for the first time the volatile geochemistry of shallow hydrothermal plumes, which were sampled using a CTD-RMS system after analyzing water column images collected by multi-beam echo sounder surveys. These surveys were performed during the research cruise KS-14-10 of the R/V Shinsei Maru in a region stretching from the Wakamiko Crater to the Tokara Islands. The 3He flux and methane flux in the investigated area are estimated to be (0.99-2.6) × 104 atoms/cm2/sec and 6-60 t/yr, respectively. The methane in the region of the Tokara Islands is a mix between abiotic methane similar to that found in the East Pacific Rise and thermogenic one. Methane at the Wakamiko Crater is of abiotic origin but affected by isotopic fractionation through rapid microbial oxidation. The helium isotopes suggest the presence of subduction-type mantle helium at the Wakamiko Crater, while a larger crustal component is found close to the Tokara Islands. This suggests that the Tokara Islands submarine volcanoes are a key feature of the transition zone between the volcanic front and the spreading back-arc basin.

Sulphur geodynamic cycle.

Evaluation of volcanic and hydrothermal fluxes to the surface environments is important to elucidate the geochemical cycle of sulphur and the evolution of ocean chemistry. This paper presents S/(3)He ratios of vesicles in mid-ocean ridge (MOR) basalt glass together with the ratios of high-temperature hydrothermal fluids to calculate the sulphur flux of 100 Gmol/y at MOR. The S/(3)He ratios of high-temperature volcanic gases show sulphur flux of 720 Gmol/y at arc volcanoes (ARC) with a contribution from the mantle of 2.9%, which is calculated as 21 Gmol/y. The C/S flux ratio of 12 from the mantle at MOR and ARC is comparable to the C/S ratio in the surface inventory, which suggests that these elements in the surface environments originated from the upper mantle.

Ten-year helium anomaly prior to the 2014 Mt Ontake eruption.

Mt Ontake in central Japan suddenly erupted on 27(th) September 2014, killing 57 people with 6 still missing. It was a hydro-volcanic eruption and new magmatic material was not detected. There were no precursor signals such as seismicity and edifice inflation. It is difficult to predict hydro-volcanic eruptions because they are local phenomena that only affect a limited area surrounding the explosive vent. Here we report a long-term helium anomaly measured in hot springs close to the central cone. Helium-3 is the most sensitive tracer of magmatic volatiles. We have conducted spatial surveys around the volcano at once per few years since November 1981. The (3)He/(4)He ratios of the closest site to the cone stayed constant until June 2000 and increased significantly from June 2003 to November 2014, while those of distant sites showed no valuable change. These observations suggest a recent re-activation of Mt Ontake and that helium-3 enhancement may have been a precursor of the 2014 eruption. We show that the eruption was ultimately caused by the increased input of magmatic volatiles over a ten-year period which resulted in the slow pressurization of the volcanic conduit leading to the hydro-volcanic event in September 2014.