EMDR v. other psychological therapies for PTSD: a systematic review and individual participant data meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: This systematic review and individual participant data meta-analysis (IPDMA) examined the overall effectiveness of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) in reducing posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, achieving response and remission, and reducing treatment dropout among adults with PTSD compared to other psychological treatments. Additionally, we examined available participant-level moderators of the efficacy of EMDR. METHODS: This study included randomized controlled trials. Eligible studies were identified by a systematic search in PubMed, Embase, PsyclNFO, PTSDpubs, and CENTRAL. The target population was adults with above-threshold baseline PTSD symptoms. Trials were eligible if at least 70% of study participants had been diagnosed with PTSD using a structured clinical interview. Primary outcomes included PTSD symptom severity, treatment response, and PTSD remission. Treatment dropout was a secondary outcome. The systematic search retrieved 15 eligible randomized controlled trials (RCTs); 8 of these 15 were able to be included in this IPDMA (346 patients). Comparator treatments included relaxation therapy, emotional freedom technique, trauma-focused cognitive behavioral psychotherapies, and REM-desensitization. RESULTS: One-stage IPDMA found no significant difference between EMDR and other psychological treatments in reducing PTSD symptom severity (ß = -0.24), achieving response (ß = 0.86), attaining remission (ß = 1.05), or reducing treatment dropout rates (ß = -0.25). Moderator analyses found unemployed participants receiving EMDR had higher PTSD symptom severity at the post-test, and males were more likely to drop out of EMDR treatment than females. CONCLUSION: The current study found no significant difference between EMDR and other psychological treatments. We found some indication of the moderating effects of gender and employment status.

The Development and Psychometric Evaluation of the Group Schema Therapy Rating Scale - Revised.

BACKGROUND: Recent research has supported the efficacy of schema therapy as a treatment for personality disorders. A group format has been developed (group schema therapy; GST), which has been suggested to improve both the clinical and cost-effectiveness of the treatment. AIMS: Efficacy studies of GST need to assess treatment fidelity. The aims of the present study were to improve, describe and evaluate a fidelity measure for GST, the Group Schema Therapy Rating Scale - Revised (GSTRS-R). METHOD: Following a pilot study on an initial version of the scale (GSTRS), items were revised and guidelines were modified in order to improve the reliability of the scale. Students highly experienced with the scale rated recorded GST therapy sessions using the GSTRS-R in addition to a group cohesion measure, the Harvard Community Health Plan Group Cohesiveness Scale - II (GCS-II). The scores were used to assess internal consistency and inter-rater reliability. Discriminant validity was assessed by comparing the scores on the GSTRS-R with the GCS-II. RESULTS: The GSTRS-R displayed substantial internal consistency and inter-rater reliability, and adequate discriminate validity, evidenced by a weak positive correlation with the GCS-II. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, the GSTRS-R is a reliable tool that may be useful for evaluating therapist fidelity to GST model, and assisting GST training and supervision. Initial validity was supported by a weak association with GCS-II, indicating that although associated with cohesiveness, the instrument also assesses factors specific to GST. Limitations are discussed.

The YSQ-R: Predictive Validity and Comparison to the Short and Long Form Young Schema Questionnaire.

The capacity of the Young Schema Questionnaire (YSQ) to predict psychopathology in specific clinical groups has consistently produced mixed findings. This study assessed three versions of the Young Schema Questionnaire (YSQ), including the long form (YSQ-L3), short form (YSQ-S3), and the recent Rasch-derived version, the YSQ-R, and their subscales, in predicting psychological distress in three different psychiatric groups and a non-clinical group. Test equating techniques were first applied to derive a common metric to ensure that each YSQ version was directly comparable. In the second stage, multiple regression analyses were employed to assess the predictive validity of each YSQ version and their subscales. The YSQ-R and YQ-L3 and their respective subscales were similar in their predictive power across all groups and conditions. The YSQ-S3 could not predict pre-treatment Early Maladaptive Schemas (EMS) and global symptom severity in the PTSD group, nor could it predict pre-treatment EMS and changes in global symptom severity in the Alcohol and Substance Use group. This was the first study to assess the predictive validity of three different versions of the YSQ. Our findings suggest that YSQ-R has the breadth of the YSQ-L3 and the shortness of the YSQ-S3, making it an ideal tool for assessing EMS across research and clinical settings.

A randomized controlled trial examining the impact of individual trauma-focused therapy for individuals receiving group treatment for depression.

OBJECTIVES: Adverse life events are associated with increased likelihood of depression and poorer prognosis. Trauma-focused treatments (TFT) appear to be effective in decreasing comorbid depressive symptoms. Accordingly, the aim of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of a TFT on the memories of aversive events for individuals with a primary diagnosis of depression. METHODS: A randomized controlled trial was conducted with 49 participants recruited from a 10-day outpatient group programme. All participants showed symptoms of depression with a subgroup (80%) meeting the DSM-5 criteria for a major depressive episode. Participants received treatment as usual (TAU); three additional individual trauma-focused sessions; or three additional individual assertiveness training sessions. Participants were assessed with regards to depression diagnosis and related symptoms. RESULTS: For participants with a major depressive episode, the addition of trauma-focused sessions significantly increased the likelihood of remission when compared to TAU, or additional assertiveness training. While no significant treatment difference was noted in depressive symptom change post-treatment, six weeks after treatment those who received an adjunct treatment were more likely to maintain treatment gains than those who received TAU. Furthermore, at 12-week follow-up, participants who received a TFT reported significantly fewer depressive symptoms than those who received assertiveness training. CONCLUSIONS: While differences in outcomes were minimal immediately post-treatment, differences among treatment groups increased over time. Thus, as few as three additional TFT sessions may impact positively on symptom change for people completing a group programme for the treatment of depression. PRACTITIONER POINTS: Depression is the greatest cause of disability worldwide. Adverse experiences are linked with an increased likelihood of depression, more severe symptoms and poor treatment outcomes following evidence-based interventions. As few as three trauma-focused sessions can improve treatment outcomes in terms of depression diagnosis and related symptoms for individuals receiving group cognitive behavioural therapy.

Trauma-focused treatments for depression. A systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Trauma-focused treatments (TFTs) have demonstrated efficacy at decreasing depressive symptoms in individuals with PTSD. This systematic review and meta-analysis evaluated the effectiveness of TFTs for individuals with depression as their primary concern. METHODS: A systematic search was conducted for RCTs published before October 2019 in Cochrane CENTRAL, Pubmed, EMBASE, PsycInfo, and additional sources. Trials examining the impact of TFTs on participants with depression were included. Trials focusing on individuals with PTSD or another mental health condition were excluded. The primary outcome was the effect size for depression diagnosis or depressive symptoms. Heterogeneity, study quality, and publication bias were also explored. RESULTS: Eleven RCTs were included (n = 567) with ten of these using EMDR as the TFT and one using imagery rescripting. Analysis suggested these TFTs were effective in reducing depressive symptoms post-treatment with a large effect size [d = 1.17 (95% CI: 0.58~ 1.75)]. Removal of an outlier saw the effect size remain large [d = 0.83 (95% CI: 0.48~ 1.17)], while the heterogeneity decreased (I2 = 66%). Analysis of the 10 studies that used EMDR also showed a large effect [d = 1.30 (95% CI: 0.67~1.91)]. EMDR was superior to non trauma-focused CBT [d = 0.66 (95% CI: 0.31~1.02)] and analysis of EMDR and imagery rescripting studies suggest superiority over inactive control conditions [d = 1.19 (95% CI: 0.53~ 1.86)]. Analysis of follow-up data also supported the use of EMDR with this population [d = 0.71 (95% CI: 1.04~0.38)]. No publication bias was identified. CONCLUSIONS: Current evidence suggests that EMDR can be an effective treatment for depression. There were insufficient RCTs on other trauma-focused interventions to conclude whether TFTs in general were effective for treating depression. Larger studies with robust methodology using EMDR and other trauma-focused interventions are needed to build on these findings.

Participant experiences of Eye Movement Desensitisation and Reprocessing vs. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy for grief: similarities and differences.

Background and Objective: Previous research has used quantitative methods to assess the impact of grief therapy. However, rarely have participants been asked about how they have been affected by treatment using qualitative methods. This study sought to explore participants' experiences of two therapeutic approaches to grief: Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) and Eye Movement Desensitisation and Reprocessing (EMDR). Method: Nineteen participants were randomly allocated to receive seven weekly therapy sessions of either CBT or EMDR. Approximately two weeks after completing therapy, a semi-structured interview was conducted with each participant. Interviews were transcribed and a thematic analysis was performed. Results: Participant reports common to both therapies included developments in insight, a positive shift in emotions, increased activity, improved self-confidence and a healthier mental relationship to the deceased. Participants also responded by describing experiences that were unique to each therapy. Those who completed CBT described the acquisition of emotion regulation tools and shifting from being in an ongoing state of grief to feeling that they were at a new stage in their lives. Participants who completed EMDR reported that distressing memories were less clear and felt more distant from such memories following treatment. Conclusions: Although both therapies resulted in some similar changes for participants, there were unique experiences associated with each therapy. These findings are discussed in terms of implications for the underlying key processes of each therapy and the processes of recovery in grief.

Planteamiento y objetivos: Las investigaciones previas han utilizado métodos cuantitativos para evaluar el impacto de la terapia de duelo. Sin embargo, rara vez se han empleado métodos cualitativos para preguntar a los participantes cómo se han visto afectados por el tratamiento. Este estudio trató de explorar las experiencias de los participantes con dos enfoques terapéuticos sobre duelo: la terapia cognitivo conductual (TCC) y la desensibilización y reprocesamiento mediante movimientos oculares (EMDR, siglas en inglés de Eye Movement Desensitisation and Reprocessing) Métodos: Diecinueve participantes fueron asignados al azar para recibir siete sesiones de terapia semanal de TCC o EMDR. Aproximadamente dos semanas después de completar el tratamiento, se llevó a cabo una entrevista semiestructurada con cada participante. Se transcribieron las entrevistas y se realizó un análisis temático. Resultados: Los informes de los participantes que fueron comunes a ambas terapias incluyeron avances en las auto-percepciones, un cambio positivo en las emociones, un aumento de la actividad, una mayor confianza en sí mismos y una relación mental más sana con el fallecido. Los participantes también respondieron describiendo experiencias que eran únicas para cada terapia. Aquellos que completaron la TCC describieron haber adquirido herramientas de regulación emocional y haber pasado de estar en un estado de dolor continuo a sentir que estaban en una nueva etapa en su vida. Los participantes que completaron EMDR indicaron que los recuerdos angustiosos eran menos claros y que se sentían más distantes de tales recuerdos después del tratamiento. Conclusiones: Aunque ambas terapias dieron como resultado algunos cambios similares para los participantes, hubo experiencias únicas asociadas con cada terapia. Estos hallazgos se discuten en términos de implicaciones para los procesos claves subyacentes de cada terapia y los procesos de recuperación en el proceso de duelo.

The efficacy of acupoint stimulation in the treatment of psychological distress: A meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Emotional Freedom Techniques (EFT) is a type of therapy involving the stimulation of acupuncture points while using a spoken affirmation to target a psychological issue. While some studies cite data indicating EFT is highly efficacious, findings in other studies are unconvincing. The aim of this meta-analysis was to examine the effect of EFT, particular acupoint stimulation, in the treatment of psychological distress. METHOD: A systematic review of the literature identified 18 randomised control trials published in peer reviewed journals involving a total of 921 participants. RESULTS: A moderate effect size (Hedge's g = -0.66: 95% CI: -0.99 to -0.33) and significantly high heterogeneity (I(2) = 80.78) across studies was found using a random effects model indicating that EFT, even after removing outliers (decreases in I(2) = 72.32 and Hedge's g = -0.51:95% CI:-0.78 to -0.23), appears to produce an effect. The analysis involved 12 studies comparing EFT with waitlist controls, 5 with adjuncts and only 1 comparison with an alternate treatment. Meta-regression and subgroup analyses were conducted to examine the effect of moderators on effect size of symptom change following EFT. CONCLUSIONS: Due to methodological shortcomings, it was not possible to determine if the effect is due to acupoint stimulation or simply due to treatment elements common with other therapies.

A meta-analysis of the contribution of eye movements in processing emotional memories.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Eye Movement Desensitisation and Reprocessing (EMDR) is now considered evidence based practice in the treatment of trauma symptoms. Yet in a previous meta-analysis, no significant effect was found for the eye movement component. However methodological issues with this study may have resulted in a type II error. The aim of this meta-analysis was to examine current published studies to test whether eye movements significantly affect the processing of distressing memories. METHOD: A systematic review of the literature revealed two groups of studies. The first group comprised 15 clinical trials and compared the effects of EMDR therapy with eye movements to those of EMDR without the eye movements. The second group comprised 11 laboratory trials that investigated the effects of eye movements while thinking of a distressing memory versus the same procedure without the eye movements in a non-therapy context. The total number of participants was 849. RESULTS: The effect size for the additive effect of eye movements in EMDR treatment studies was moderate and significant (Cohen's d = 0.41). For the second group of laboratory studies the effect size was large and significant (d = 0.74). The strongest effect size difference was for vividness measures in the non-therapy studies (d = 0.91). The data indicated that treatment fidelity acted as a moderator variable on the effect of eye movements in the therapy studies. CONCLUSIONS: Results were discussed in terms of current theories that suggest the processes involved in EMDR are different from other exposure based therapies.

Dialectical Behaviour Therapy for the Treatment of Emotion Dysregulation and Trauma Symptoms in Self-Injurious and Suicidal Adolescent Females: A Pilot Programme within a Community-Based Child and Adolescent Mental Health Service.

Background. The literature suggests a link between childhood trauma and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies, including nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) and suicidality. We assessed the impact of a pilot dialectical behaviour therapy (DBT) programme on reducing trauma-related symptoms and improving emotional regulation, suicidality, and NSSI in adolescents. Methods. Six adolescents attending a community mental health service received 26 weeks of DBT, together with a parent. Independent assessors collected measures on each participant at baseline, posttreatment, and three-month followup. We implemented further improvements over past research with the use of adolescent-specific outcome measures as well as independent assessment of treatment integrity, noted as problematic in previous studies, using videotapes. Results. Firstly, adolescents reported a decrease in trauma-based symptoms, suicidality, and NSSI following participation in the DBT programme that was maintained at the three-month followup. Secondly, adolescents also reported improved emotion regulation immediately following treatment, and this was maintained, albeit more moderately, three months later. Given the burgeoning demand on mental health services, it is notable that five of the six adolescents were discharged from the service following the DBT intervention. Conclusions. The results of this pilot programme suggest that DBT has the potential to improve the symptoms of this at-risk population.