The safety and efficacy of adding once-daily insulin detemir to oral hypoglycaemic agents in patients with type 2 diabetes in a clinical practice setting in 10 countries.

AIMS: Evaluate the safety and efficacy of once-daily insulin detemir initiated in routine clinical practice in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus inadequately controlled with oral hypoglycaemic agents (OHAs). METHODS: This large observational study was conducted in 10 countries. Adverse event data (including hypoglycaemia) and glycaemic control were recorded before and 24 weeks following insulin initiation while patients continued routine clinical management. RESULTS: In this study, 17 374 patients (53% male) were included. Mean pre-insulin values (±s.d.) were: age 62 ± 12 years; body mass index (BMI) 29.3 ± 5.4 kg/m(2); diabetes duration 10 ± 7 years; haemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) 8.9 ± 1.6%. During the study, 27 patients experienced serious adverse drug reaction, severe hypoglycaemic events or both; and there were 31 episodes of severe hypoglycaemia in 21 patients. After 24 weeks, HbA1c was 7.5 ± 1.2% (change of -1.3%; p < 0.001) and mean weight change was -0.6 kg (confidence interval -0.7, -0.5 kg, p < 0.001). Daily insulin dose increased from 13 ± 6 U (0.16 ± 0.09 U/kg) to 22 ± 16 U (0.27 ± 0.17U/kg) by 24 weeks. Multivariate regression analysis identified several independent demographic and treatment predictors of end of study HbA1c. CONCLUSIONS: Addition of once-daily insulin detemir to patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus on OHA therapy resulted in few adverse events, significant improvements in glycaemic control, small reductions in weight and low rates of hypoglycaemia. On the basis of this study, concerns about hypoglycaemia or weight gain should not preclude initiation of basal insulin analogues in patients with poor glycaemic control on OHAs.

Mid- and high-ratio premix insulin analogues: potential treatment options for patients with type 2 diabetes in need of greater postprandial blood glucose control.

Some patients with type 2 diabetes continue to have high postprandial blood glucose levels on twice-daily regimens of 'low-ratio' premix insulin formulations (up to 30% rapid-acting, with 70% protracted insulin). These patients require intensified insulin therapy, which can be provided by a twice- or thrice-daily regimen of mid-ratio (50% rapid-acting and 50% protaminated intermediate-acting insulin - human or analogue) or high-ratio (70% rapid-acting and 30% protaminated insulin - analogue only) premix insulin. Alternatively, a third daily injection of low-ratio premix insulin can be added to the regimen, with the option of incorporating one or more injections of mid- or high-ratio premix as required, and as an alternative to basal-bolus therapy. How these mid- and high-ratio formulations differ from the low-ratio premix insulins is reviewed here, with the aim of identifying the role of these formulations in diabetes management. Glucose clamp studies have shown that premix analogues give serum insulin levels proportional to their percentage of rapid-acting uncomplexed insulin: the higher the proportion, the greater the maximum level reached. Other pharmacokinetic parameters were not always significantly different between the mid- and high-ratio formulations. In clinical trials, postprandial plasma glucose and glycated haemoglobin A1c (HbA(1c)) levels were significantly reduced with thrice-daily mid- /high-ratio premix analogue when compared with twice-daily low-ratio biphasic human insulin (BHI) 30/70 or once-daily insulin glargine. Moreover, glycaemic control with mid-/high-ratio premix analogue was found to be similar to that with a basal-bolus therapy. Mid- and high-ratio premix regimens are generally well tolerated. The frequency of minor hypoglycaemia was reportedly higher with mid- /high-ratio premix analogues than with BHI 30, but nocturnal hypoglycaemia was less frequent. Although there is little evidence that clinical outcomes with mid-ratio premix analogues are different from those with high-ratio, they are useful additions to the low-ratio formulations for the management of diabetes, and addressing postprandial hyperglycaemia in particular.

Improved glycaemic control of thrice-daily biphasic insulin aspart compared with twice-daily biphasic human insulin; a randomized, open-label trial in patients with type 1 or type 2 diabetes.

AIM: This trial evaluated the potential for improving glycaemic control by intensifying a conventional twice-daily therapy with premixed human insulin (HI) to a thrice-daily regimen using premixed formulations of biphasic insulin aspart (BIAsp) in patients with type 1 or type 2 diabetes. METHODS: This was a multicentre, open-label, parallel group trial. After a 4-week run-in period, patients were randomized 1 : 1 to 16 weeks of treatment. A total of 748 patients were screened, 664 were exposed to trial drug and 604 completed the trial. RESULTS: Haemoglobin A(1c), the primary efficacy endpoint, was shown to be significantly lower for the BIAsp treatment group compared with the biphasic HI (BHI) 30 group [estimated mean difference: -0.32, 95% confidence interval (CI) (-0.48; -0.16), p = 0.0001]. The average blood glucose level was significantly lower in the BIAsp group [estimated mean difference: -0.79, 95% CI (-1.17; -0.40), p = 0.0001]. There were few major hypoglycaemic episodes, 11 in the BIAsp group and 7 in the BHI 30 group. Although intensification of insulin therapy with BIAsp three times a day was associated with a higher risk of minor hypoglycaemia (relative risk = 1.58, p = 0.0038), the overall rate of minor hypoglycaemia remained low with both the BIAsp and the BHI treatments (13.1 vs. 8.3 episodes/patient year respectively). Overall safety and patient satisfaction were similar with the two insulin therapies. CONCLUSIONS: This trial confirmed that a thrice-daily BIAsp regimen can safely be used to intensify treatment for patients inadequately controlled on twice-daily BHI. A treat-to-target trial is required to explore the full potential of the BIAsp regimens and evaluate their use as a viable alternative to intensification with a basal-bolus regimen.

Biphasic insulin aspart given thrice daily is as efficacious as a basal-bolus insulin regimen with four daily injections: a randomised open-label parallel group four months comparison in patients with type 2 diabetes.

AIMS: To show that a thrice daily meal-time biphasic insulin aspart (BIAsp) treatment regimen is as efficacious as a 4 times daily basal-bolus regimen with human isophane insulin (NPH) and insulin aspart (IAsp). METHODS: A multinational, randomised, open-label parallel-group trial in 394 patients with type 2 diabetes on a once or twice daily insulin regimen. Patients were randomised 1:1 to BIAsp or IAsp+NPH for 16 weeks. The BIAsp group was treated according to individual needs using BMI as a surrogate index of insulin resistance. Subjects administered BIAsp 70 (BMI< or =30 kg/m (2)) or BIAsp 50 (BMI>30 kg/m (2)) with breakfast and lunch and BIAsp 30 with dinner. The IAsp+NPH group injected IAsp at meals and NPH at bedtime as basal insulin. HbAlc levels after 16 weeks were compared between treatments using a predefined non-inferiority criterion of 0.4%. The incidence of hypoglycaemic episodes and adverse events was evaluated. RESULTS: Mean HbAlc (+/-SD) decreased from 9.1+/-0.7% to 7.8+/-1.0% with both treatments. Glycaemic control provided by BIAsp was non-inferior to that obtained by the IAsp+NPH (intention to treat ITT) population: diff, HbAlc -0.05%; 95% CI (-0.24; 0.14); per protocol (PP) population: diff, HbAlc -0.03%; 95% CI (-0.23; 0.16). Similar improvements in glycaemic control in both groups were confirmed by self-measured 8-point plasma glucose (PG) profiles, average and fasting PG concentrations, and average prandial PG increments. The incidence of adverse events and hypoglycaemic episodes was similar in the two treatment groups. CONCLUSIONS: A thrice daily meal-time BIAsp regimen is a suitable alternative to an intensified insulin regimen in people with inadequately controlled type 2 diabetes mellitus, and requires fewer daily injections than a basal-bolus therapy without compromising efficacy and safety.

Sexual risk of HIV infection among expatriates posted in AIDS endemic areas.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the prevalence of HIV infection and related risk factors among Dutch expatriates returning from assignment in sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America, and South and South-east Asia. METHODS: From July 1994 to January 1996, a questionnaire on the risks of sexual exposure was completed by 864 respondents, and blood samples were taken. RESULTS: Of the 634 men, 41% reported having sex with casual or steady local partners and 11% with casual or steady expatriate partners, during an average stay of 26 months in the previous 3 years. Of the 230 women, these figures were 31 and 24%, respectively. Of the men with local casual partners (29%), 59% paid for sex at least once. For men as well as women, having sexual contacts abroad was associated with younger age, positive intention prior to departure to have sex abroad, being single at departure, and, only for the men, working for a commercial organization, and feelings of loneliness and boredom. Among men, consistent condom use with casual local partners was 69%, and with casual expatriate partners 63%. Among women, these figures were 64 and 48%, respectively. Consistent condom use with steady local or expatriate partners was much lower. Among men, non-consistent condom use with casual partners was more prevalent if they had been abroad for a longer time, condoms were not taken along from The Netherlands, the country where they were posted was Asian, and the estimated HIV prevalence among the local population was lower. Among the women, non-consistent condom use was more prevalent if condoms were not taken along, and if they did not have the intention before departure to have sex abroad. Of the persons from whom blood could be obtained, one man was HIV-positive. Another man who refused to participate in the study indicated that he was HIV-positive. CONCLUSIONS: Although 23% of the expatriates had unprotected sex with partners from endemic areas, very few HIV infections were found. In comparison with a previous study among this population carried out in 1987-1989, which found five out of 1968 expatriates to be HIV-infected, consistent condom use with casual local partners did increase considerably (from 21 to 67%). However, health education is needed to reduce the risk of HIV infection, which should emphasize the sociocultural differences in sexual practices.

PIP: A survey conducted among 864 Dutch expatriates returning home from assignment in AIDS-endemic areas in sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America, and South and South East Asia revealed a low rate of HIV infection, despite widespread high-risk sexual practices. During an average stay out of the country of 26 months in 1991-96, 41% of the 634 male respondents reported sex with casual or steady local partners and 11% with casual or steady expatriate partners. Among the 230 female expatriates, these rates were 31% and 24%, respectively. 58% of men with casual local partners paid for sex at least once. Among men, consistent condom use was practiced in 69% of encounters with casual local partners and 63% of the time with casual expatriate partners. Among women, these rates were 64% and 48%, respectively. The prevalence of consistent condom use with casual local partners in this study was three times greater than that identified in a study conducted among Dutch expatriates in 1987-89. Condom use with regular local or expatriate partners was substantially lower (16.1-27.8%), however. Inconsistent condom use with casual partners was significantly associated, among men, with being abroad for a longer period of time, failure to bring condoms with them from the Netherlands, posting in an Asian country, and a relatively low estimated HIV prevalence in the local population. Among women, these risk factors were failure to take condoms to their destination and lack of intention at departure to have sex abroad. Only one case of HIV infection was detected in the 847 respondents who underwent serologic testing. Since expatriates function as a bridge between areas with high and low HIV prevalence, educational campaigns that prepare departing workers for differences between the sexual culture at home and abroad and encourage them to take a supply of condoms are recommended.

Atovaquone plus chloroguanide versus mefloquine for malaria prophylaxis: a focus on neuropsychiatric adverse events.

OBJECTIVES: We performed a prospective, double-blind, randomized study to compare the occurrence of neuropsychiatric adverse events and concentration impairment during prophylactic use of either mefloquine or atovaquone plus chloroguanide (INN, proguanil). METHODS: Our potential study population consisted of all persons who were included in the MAL30010 trial at the Travel Clinic, Rotterdam, The Netherlands. All subjects were randomized to receive either active atovaquone (250 mg) plus chloroguanide (100 mg) daily plus a placebo for mefloquine weekly or active mefloquine (250 mg) weekly plus a placebo for atovaquone plus chloroguanide daily. Each subject was followed up from a baseline screening visit up to the index date, 7 days after he or she left the malaria-endemic area. We measured the interindividual and intraindividual changes in mood disturbance by means of the Dutch shortened Profile of Mood States and 3 domains of the Neurobehavioral Evaluation System, which included sustained attention, coding speed, and visuomotor accuracy between baseline and follow-up visit. RESULTS: The cohort consisted of 119 subjects with a mean age of 35 years. A significant deterioration in depression, anger, fatigue, vigor, and total mood disturbance domains occurred during use of mefloquine but not during use of atovaquone plus chloroguanide. Stratification for sex showed between-treatment differences in female patients but not in male patients. In both treatment groups, sustained attention deteriorated after travel, especially with increased duration of stay. CONCLUSIONS: Prophylactic use of mefloquine was associated with significantly higher scores on scales for depression, anger, and fatigue and lower scores for vigor than prophylactic use of atovaquone plus chloroguanide.

Travel-related morbidity in travelers with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus.

BACKGROUND: To assess whether there are clinically significant problems in patients with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) traveling to tropical countries regarding metabolic dysregulations, infectious complications and general health problems. METHODS: A retrospective, descriptive cohort study by telephone interview of all IDDM patients who had received pretravel health advice at our travel clinic during a 12 month period. Data were collected on IDDM related problems: hypo-/hyperglycemic dysregulation, infectious complications, practical difficulties, exploring risk factors, as well as on general health problems. RESULTS: Of the 19 respondents, 13 (68%) reported any metabolic dysregulation, including all but one respondents with Type 1 diabetes. Fifty-five percent of Type 1 diabetics reported to have dysregulated more often than in the preceding period at home. Critical dysregulations occurred in 2 of the 19 study patients. Only 4 out of 11 (36%) type 1 IDDM patients increased frequency of blood glucose monitoring while traveling. Three travelers reported a febrile illness which resulted in hyperglycemic dysregulation. Five study patients experienced difficulties in the adjustment of their insulin dosage to the unfamiliar circumstances of traveling in the tropics. CONCLUSIONS: Metabolic dysregulation was a clinically significant problem, thus IDDM travelers to tropical destinations probably run extra health risks. Fever, easily acquired in the tropics, appeared to be an additional, serious health problem for this study population. As the number of diabetic travelers will increase, more research on the importance of risk factors possibly leading to dysregulation is necessary.

Prolonged fever and pyuria: an uncommon manifestation of Q fever.

A patient with Q fever is described who had been ill for a year before the diagnosis was made on the basis of serological data. In addition it was possible to isolate Coxiella burnetii, the causative agent by culture from the urine. This is very exceptional and is to our knowledge only the second case in which this has been achieved. The patient made a full recovery after lengthy treatment with tetracycline. Q fever should be considered in patients with pyrexia of unknown origin, particularly in travellers.

Analysis of efficacy of CVD 103-HgR live oral cholera vaccine against all-cause travellers' diarrhoea in a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study.

Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC), which produces heat labile toxin (LT) and/or heat stable toxin (ST), is considered to be the most common known cause of travellers' diarrhoea (TD). Owing to the antigenic similarity between cholera toxin and LT, immunization with inactivated oral B-subunit/whole-cell cholera vaccine (BS-WC) offers short term (3 months) but significant (>67%) protection against TD caused by LT-related ETEC. Since it expresses the cholera toxin B (CTB) subunit, the live attenuated oral cholera vaccine strain CVD 103-HgR, may induce similar protection. A trial was performed to determine if CVD 103-HgR live oral cholera vaccine would provide a protective efficacy of at least 50% against TD. In addition, the protective efficacy of the vaccine against TD specifically due to LT-ETEC and LT/ST-ETEC was determined. Volunteers (n=134) travelling to Indonesia, India, Thailand or West-Africa were randomised to receive either a placebo (n=65) or the vaccine (n=69). In the placebo group, 46% reported an episode of diarrhoea, compared to 52% in the vaccine group. No significant group differences were found with regard to incidence, duration or severity of all caused TD or ETEC-associated TD. However, ETEC-associated TD occurred earlier in the placebo group (median 5 days), compared to the vaccine group (median 15 days). In conclusion, CVD 103-HgR live oral cholera vaccine failed to provide a 50% protection against TD. This study does not exclude that the vaccine may offer a short-lived protection against ETEC-associated TD. However, the power of the study was limited by the unexpected low incidence of LT-ETEC-associated diarrhoea (9% of all TD) compared to ST-associated TD (24% of all TD).

Neuropsychiatric events during prophylactic use of mefloquine before travelling.

INTRODUCTION: It has been suggested that neuropsychiatric events during use of mefloquine are more common in females than in males and are partly explained by the psychological stress of travelling. Therefore, we investigated neuropsychiatric events in females and males on mefloquine in the 3-week prophylactic period that precedes travelling. Furthermore, we investigated whether first-time users had a higher risk of neuropsychiatric adverse events than subjects with a history of mefloquine use. METHODS: We enrolled all patients who visited a Travel Clinic for mefloquine prophylaxis during the period 1 May 1999 to 7 March 2000. Each patient was followed from baseline (prior to starting mefloquine) up to 3 weeks after the start of mefloquine but before travelling. We asked patients to register any adverse event in a diary and measured the intra-individual change in scores on the Dutch Shortened Profile Of Mood States (POMS) at baseline and at the end of follow-up. RESULTS: The final cohort consisted of 179 subjects with a mean age of 3 years. Females reported adverse events more frequently than males ( P=0.005). Overall, we observed a small but significant increase in the score on the domain fatigue [0.74 points, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.18, 1.30]. The effect was exclusively present in females and not in males. First-time users of mefloquine increased 2.81 points (95% CI 0.70, 4.92) on the total score of the POMS, and among those, women showed the largest increase of 4.58 points (95% CI 0.74, 8.43). CONCLUSION: The use of mefloquine was associated with neuropsychiatric adverse effects. Females encountered neuropsychiatric effects more frequently than males, which could be confirmed by validated psychological tests. Neuropsychiatric effects were more common in first-time users than in individuals who had used mefloquine before.

Neuro-psychiatric effects of antimalarials.

OBJECTIVE: To study the neuro-psychiatric adverse effects of antimalarial drugs. SETTING: Persons who visited a Travel Clinic in Rotterdam over a period of 3 months. DESIGN: Prospective cohort study on 394 persons taking mefloquine, 493 persons taking proguanil and 340 persons not taking antimalarial drugs who visited Africa, South America, Asia, or the Middle East. METHODS: All persons received a structured questionnaire within 14 days of their return to the Netherlands. The questionnaire consisted of questions regarding use of alcohol, smoking, general health, medical history, tropical diseases during the trip, and other medicines, and contained an extensive list of general complaints regarding all body systems at four levels of severity. A modified and validated version of the Profile of Mood States was included. RESULTS: In the study period, 2541 persons visited the Travel Clinic, of whom 1791 (70%) were both eligible and willing to co-operate. Of these 1791, data were obtained from 1501 (84%). Insomnia was most frequently encountered in users of mefloquine and mouth ulcers in proguanil users. After adjustment for gender, age, destination, and alcohol use, the relative risk for insomnia to mefloquine versus non-users of antimalarials was 1.6, and the excess risk was 6 per 100 users over an average period of 2 months. There were no significant differences between groups in depression, anxiety, agitation, and confusion. Stratification by gender demonstrated that insomnia was more common in women on mefloquine, but not in men. Also, women more frequently mentioned palpitations as an adverse event. After adjustment for age, destination, and alcohol use in women, the relative risks for insomnia and palpitations to mefloquine versus non-use of antimalarials were 2.4, and 22.5, respectively. When travellers were specifically asked for the adverse reactions they had experienced, anxiety, vertigo, agitation, and nightmares were significantly more frequently mentioned by mefloquine users. CONCLUSION: Insomnia was more commonly encountered during use of mefloquine than proguanil or during non-use of antimalarials.

Low body mass index is associated with an increased risk of neuropsychiatric adverse events and concentration impairment in women on mefloquine.

AIMS: We performed a prospective cohort study to gain more insight into risk factors for neuropsychiatric effects of mefloquine among tourists travelling to tropical areas. METHODS: We enrolled all patients who consulted the Travel Clinic of the Havenziekenhuis & Institute for Tropical Diseases Rotterdam for mefloquine prophylaxis during the period between 1 May 1999 and 7 March 2000. Each patient was followed from baseline (prior to starting mefloquine) up to 3 weeks after starting weekly intake of 250 mg mefloquine. We compared the intraindividual change in scores between baseline and follow-up visit on the Dutch shortened Profile of Mood States, and on the Continuous Performance Test (CPT) which measures sustained attention. RESULTS: The final cohort consisted of 151 subjects with a mean age of 38 years. In this population, a significant impairment of mood state was observed in those with a body mass index (BMI) < or = 20 kg m(-2). Stratification for gender showed that the total mood disturbance in females in the lowest BMI category significantly increased by 8.42 points [95% confidence interval (CI) 3.33, 13.50], whereas BMI did not affect the risk in males. Stratification for history of use of mefloquine showed that the risks were highest in first-time users. Analyses of the CPT showed that reaction time in women with a BMI < or = 20 kg m(-2) increased significantly by 22.5 ms (95% CI 7.80, 37.20), whereas reaction time in men showed a slight and nonsignificant decrease. CONCLUSION: Risk factors for mefloquine-associated neuropsychiatric adverse events and concentration impairment are female gender, low BMI, and first-time use. The frequency of neuropsychiatric effects is highest in women with a BMI < or = 20 kg m(-2).