DNA methylation and FoxO3a regulate PHLPP1 expression in chondrocytes.

The protein phosphatase Phlpp1 is an essential enzyme for proper chondrocyte function. Altered Phlpp1 levels are associated with cancer and degenerative diseases such as osteoarthritis. While much is known about the post-transcriptional mechanisms controlling Phlpp1 levels, transcriptional regulation of the Phlpp1 gene locus is underexplored. We previously showed that CpG methylation of the PHLPP1 promoter is lower in osteoarthritic cartilage than in normal cartilage, and indirectly correlates with gene expression. Here we further defined the effects of DNA methylation on PHLPP1 promoter activity in chondrocytes. We cloned a 1791 bp fragment of the PHLPP1 promoter (-1589:+202) and found that the first 500 bp were required for maximal promoter activity. General methylation of CpG sites within this fragment significantly blunts transcriptional activity, whereas site-specific methyltransferases HhaI or HpaII decrease transcriptional activation by approximately 50%. We located putative FoxO consensus sites within the PHLPP1 promoter region. Inhibition of DNA methylation by incorporation of 5-azacytidine increases Phlpp1 mRNA levels, but FoxO inhibition abolishes this induction. To determine which FoxO transcription factor mediates Phlpp1 expression, we performed overexpression and siRNA-mediated knock down experiments. Overexpression of FoxO3a, but not FoxO1, increases Phlpp1 levels. Likewise, siRNAs targeting FoxO3a, but not FoxO1, diminished Phlpp1 levels. Last, FoxO inhibition increases glycosaminoglycan staining of cultured chondrocytes and leads to concomitant increases in FGF18 and HAS2 expression. Together, these data demonstrate that CpG methylation and FoxO3a regulate PHLPP1 expression.

GIRK3 deletion facilitates kappa opioid signaling in chondrocytes, delays vascularization and promotes bone lengthening in mice.

Long bones are formed and repaired through the process of endochondral ossification. Activation of G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling pathways is crucial for skeletal development and long bone growth. G protein-gated inwardly-rectifying K+ (GIRK) channel genes are key functional components and effectors of GPCR signaling pathways in excitable cells of the heart and brain, but their roles in non-excitable cells that directly contribute to endochondral bone formation have not been studied. In this study, we analyzed skeletal phenotypes of Girk2-/-, Girk3-/- and Girk2/3-/- mice. Bones from 12-week-old Girk2-/- mice were normal in length, but femurs and tibiae from Girk3-/- and Girk2/3-/- mice were longer than age-matched controls at 12-weeks-old. Epiphyseal chondrocytes from 5-day-old Girk3-/- mice expressed higher levels of genes involved in collagen chain trimerization and collagen fibril assembly, lower levels of genes encoding VEGF receptors, and produced larger micromasses than wildtype chondrocytes in vitro. Girk3-/- chondrocytes were also more responsive to the kappa opioid receptor (KOR) ligand dynorphin, as evidenced by greater pCREB expression, greater cAMP and GAG production, and upregulation of Col2a1 and Sox9 transcripts. Imaging studies showed that Kdr (Vegfr2) and endomucin expression was dramatically reduced in bones from young Girk3-/- mice, supporting a role for delayed vasculogenesis and extended postnatal endochondral bone growth. Together these data indicate that GIRK3 controls several processes involved in bone lengthening.