Bidirectional Associations Between Physical Activity and Pain Among Older Adults: An Ecological Momentary Assessment Study.

This paper examines the within-day, bidirectional associations between physical activity and self-reported pain among older adults. Older adults (N = 104; range: 60-98 years) participated in a 10-day Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA) study. Participants received six EMA prompts/day with a single item assessing pain. Participants wore an activPAL monitor measuring step counts. At the within-person level, on occasions when participants took more steps than usual in the 30 min before the EMA prompt, they were more likely to experience pain at the prompt (ß^02=0.0003, p < .03). At the between-person level, greater step counts in the 30 min before the EMA prompt, on average, were associated with less pain on occasions when pain was experienced (ß^01=-0.0005, p < .04). Pain was not related to subsequent stepping. Bidirectional associations between physical activity and pain were not documented, but physical activity did appear to be related to subsequent pain.

Investigating Intraindividual Variability of Psychological Needs Satisfaction and Relations With Subsequent Physical Activity.

Heeding recent calls to capture dynamic variability of physical activity (PA) motivation within a self-determination theory framework, this study examined the extent to which psychological needs satisfaction in PA predicted subsequent PA, disaggregating within-person and between-persons data. University students (N = 89) wore an ActiGraph GT3X accelerometer for 6 days and reported basic psychological needs satisfaction daily. Multilevel models examined whether competence, autonomy, and relatedness for the previous day's PA (>2,020 counts per minute) predicted the following day's minutes of PA (>2,020 counts per minute), controlling for previous-day PA. Participants who, on average, reported greater feelings of autonomy and competence tended to engage in more minutes of PA the following day. When participants reported feeling greater relatedness than what was typical for them, they tended to engage in more PA the following day. Psychological needs vary day to day, but how and to what extent they predict PA depends on the specific need.

Bidirectional Relations Between Daily Stress and Sleep Among Black Emerging Adults.

BACKGROUND: Black adults experience higher levels of stress and more dysfunctional sleep patterns compared to their White peers, both of which may contribute to racial disparities in chronic health conditions. Dysfunctional sleep patterns are also more likely in emerging adults compared to other age groups. Daily stress-sleep relations in Black emerging adults are understudied. PURPOSE: This study used ecological momentary assessment (EMA) and wrist-worn actigraphy to examine bidirectional associations between daily stress and sleep among Black emerging adults. METHODS: Black college freshmen (N = 50) completed an EMA protocol (i.e., five EMA prompts/day) and wore an accelerometer for 7 days. The first EMA prompt of each day assessed sleep duration and quality. All EMA prompts assessed stress. Wrist-worn actigraphy assessed nocturnal sleep duration, sleep onset latency, sleep efficiency, and waking after sleep onset. RESULTS: At the within-person level, stress experienced on a given day was not associated with any sleep metrics that night (p > .05). On evenings when actigraphy-based sleep duration was shorter (B = -0.02, p = .01) and self-reported sleep quality was poorer (B = -0.12, p = .02) than usual, stress was greater the following day. At the between-person level, negative bidirectional relations existed between stress and actigraphy-based waking after sleep onset (stress predicting sleep: B = -0.35, p = .02; sleep predicting stress: B = -0.27, p = .04). CONCLUSIONS: Among Black emerging adults, associations between daily sleep and stress vary at the between- and within-person level and are dependent upon the sleep metric assessed. Future research should compare these relations across different measures of stress and different racial/ethnic groups to better understand health disparities.

Within-person examination of the exercise intention-behavior gap among women in midlife with elevated cardiovascular disease risk.

Engaging in moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity (MVPA) is important for protecting cardiovascular health among women in midlife (i.e., ages 40-60), particularly if they have already developed conditions that increase their risk for cardiovascular disease (e.g., hypertension). Although the gap between MVPA intentions and behavior is well documented in other populations, little is known about the intention-behavior gap in this at-risk group - particularly as it plays a role in daily life. The present study employed an ecological momentary assessment design to examine the relation between women's MVPA intentions and behavior in the subsequent 3 hours, as well as momentary moderators of this relation (i.e., affective states and body satisfaction). Surveys sent to women's smartphones 5 times per day for 10 days while they wore ActiGraph GT3X waistband accelerometers. Women achieved their exercise intentions at only 13% of occasions on which they set intentions. Although the most common intended exercise was walking, women engaged in more minutes of MVPA after setting intentions to do yoga or Pilates than any other type of exercise (sr = 0.25). Multilevel models showed a modest within-person relation between minutes of intended MVPA and observed MVPA in the next 3 hours (sr = 0.20). This relation was moderated within-person by the reported extent of positive affect (particularly contentment) and body satisfaction (srs = 0.35 and 0.28, respectively). Findings extend knowledge about the physical activity intention-behavior gap to an at-risk population of women and identify positive affect and body satisfaction as potential contextual influences for this group, which could inform improvements to existing interventions (e.g., delivering intervention content at times with lower-than-usual body satisfaction).

Acute Bidirectional Relations Between Affect, Physical Feeling States, and Activity-Related Behaviors Among Older Adults: An Ecological Momentary Assessment Study.

BACKGROUND: The majority of older adults are physically inactive; therefore, strategies are needed to effectively promote sustained engagement in physical activity. PURPOSE: This study was designed to investigate acute bidirectional relationships between affective and physical feeling states and activity-related behaviors among older adults in the context of everyday life using Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA). METHODS: Older adults (n = 103, Mage = 72, Range: 60-98) participated in a 10-day study where they completed up to 6 smartphone-based EMA prompts/day. At each EMA prompt, participants reported their current positive and negative affect and physical feeling states. Participants wore an activPAL accelerometer to measure time spent standing and time spent stepping before and after the prompt. Separate multilevel random coefficient linear and logistic regression models examined these bidirectional relationships. RESULTS: On occasions when older adults engaged in more standing and more stepping than was typical for them in the 15 and 30 min prior to the EMA prompt, they tended to report greater feelings of energy at the prompt. On occasions when older adults reported greater feelings of energy than was typical for them, they engaged in more standing and more stepping in the 15 and 30 min following the EMA prompt. Positive and negative affect was unrelated to activity-related behaviors. CONCLUSIONS: Feelings of energy appear to be strongly linked to activity-related behaviors in older adults; however, this was not the case for positive or negative affect. These findings may have implications for optimal delivery of just-in-time intervention context based on affective states or current behaviors.

Adolescents' sedentary time, affect, and contextual factors: An ecological momentary assessment study.

BACKGROUND: Few adolescents achieve sufficient levels of physical activity, and many are spending most of their time in sedentary behavior. Affective response following sedentary time may influence motivation to remain sedentary. Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA) is a real-time data capture methodology that can be used to identify factors influencing sedentary time, such as the context of the home setting, and resulting affective state within a free-living setting. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the relationship between context at home and adolescent sedentary time, and the relationship of sedentary time and subsequent affect. METHODS: Adolescents (n = 284; 10-16 y) participated in an EMA study that used random, interval-based sampling methods. Adolescents each received 22 unannounced surveys over 7-days through a smartphone application. One survey was randomly sent within each 2-h time-period. These time-periods occurred between 4:00 pm-8:00 pm on weekdays and 8:00 am-8:00 pm on the weekend. This 15-question survey included a series of questions on context (indoors/outdoors, alone/not alone) and positive affect. Adolescents concurrently wore an accelerometer at the hip, and the 30-min bout of accelerometry data prior to each survey was used in analyses. Mixed-effect location scale models were used to examine the association between context at home and sedentary time (stage 1) and the adjusted sedentary time and positive affect (stage 2), with each model adjusted for covariates. RESULTS: Adolescents were 12.6 ± 1.9 y of age on average, about half were White (58%), and engaged in high levels of sedentary behavior during the 30 min prior to the survey (21.4 ± 6.8 min). Most surveys occurred when adolescents were with others (59%) and indoors (88%). In Stage 1, both being alone and being indoors at home were positively associated with sedentary time (p <  0.001 for both). In Stage 2, adjusted sedentary time was not related to positive affect. Age was negatively related to positive affect (p <  0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Both contextual factors, being alone and indoors at home, were related to additional time spent sedentary compared to being with someone or outdoors. After adjustment, sedentary time was not related to subsequent positive affect, indicating other factors may be related to adolescent's positive affect in home settings.

Physical activity is positively associated with college students' positive affect regardless of stressful life events during the COVID-19 pandemic.

The study was designed to determine associations between physical activity (PA) and affect before and during COVID-19 stay-at-home orders and how change in PA predicted change in affect during this time. Before and during COVID-19 stay-at-home orders, college students (n = 107) completed assessments of PA, positive and negative affect, sleep quality, food insecurity, and stressful life events (during stay-at-home order only). Total minutes of PA was positively associated with positive affect before (B = 0.01, p < 0.01) and during (B = 0.01, p = 0.01) COVID-19 stay-at-home orders. Change in minutes of PA was positively associated with change in positive affect (B = 0.01, p = 0.01). Associations between PA and positive affect were not moderated by stressful life events. PA only predicted negative affect before COVID-19 stay-at-home orders (B = -0.003, p = 0.04). PA appears to enhance positive affect during a global pandemic. Findings have implications for PA as a tool for maintaining or enhancing mental health during a time of trauma and uncertainty.

Should I sit or stand: likelihood of adherence to messages about reducing sitting time.

BACKGROUND: High population levels of sitting is contributing to high rates of chronic health problems. Therefore, the aim of this study was to identify the sitting time messages with the greatest potential to reduce sitting behaviour, as well as identify how this may differ according to demographic, behavioural and psychosocial characteristics. METHODS: Australian adults (N = 1460) were asked to report the likelihood that they would adhere to seven messages promoting reduced sitting time and two messages promoting increased physical activity (from 'not at all likely' to 'very likely'). Ordinal regression models were used to compare messages on the likelihood of adherence and whether likelihood of adherence differed as a function of demographic, psychosocial and behavioural characteristics. RESULTS: Likelihood of adherence was highest for the messages, 'Stand and take a break from sitting as frequently as you can' (83% respectively) and 'Avoid sitting for more than 10 hours during the entire day' (82%) and was significantly lower for the message, 'Sit as little as possible on all days of the week' (46%) compared to all other messages. CONCLUSIONS: To increase likelihood of adherence messages should be specific, achievable and promote healthy alternatives to sitting (e.g. standing). Messages promoting standing as a healthy alternative to sitting may be more likely to engage people with high sitting behaviour and messages promoting physical activity may be more likely to engage males and retired adults.

Dual Versus Single Parental Households and Differences in Maternal Mental Health and Child's Overweight/Obesity.

Objectives Mothers report higher levels of psychological stress than fathers. s. Psychological stress is posited to influence parenting practices that could increase children's obesity risk. However, previous studies have not investigated several aspects of maternal mental health and the moderating role of household structure on children's obesity risk. The objective was to investigate associations of maternal mental health with child obesity risk, and whether these associations differed by household structure (single-parent vs. dual parent/multigenerational). Methods Mothers and their 8-12 year old children (N = 175 dyads) completed baseline questionnaires on mothers' mental health and child anthropometrics. Separate logistic regressions assessed associations of standardized maternal mental health indicators with the odds of child overweight/obesity, controlling for child age, and women's BMI, age, education, employment status, and annual income. Household structure was investigated as a moderator of these relationships.Results There were no statistically significant relationships between maternal mental health characteristics and odds of child overweight/obesity. Among single mothers only, greater anxiety was associated with higher risk of child overweight/obesity [OR (95% CI) = 3.67 (1.27-10.62); p = 0.0163]; and greater life satisfaction was marginally associated with lower risk of child overweight/obesity [OR (95% CI) = 0.44 (0.19-1.01); p = 0.0522]. Mothers' life satisfaction may lower risk for their children's overweight/obesity, whereas higher anxiety may increase this risk, particularly among children living in single-mother households. Conclusions for Practice Future interventions could increase resources for single mothers to buffer the effects of stress and lower pediatric obesity risk.

Do fluctuations in positive affective and physical feeling states predict physical activity and sedentary time?

OBJECTIVES: Higher levels of positive affect and feelings of energy and vitality are associated with greater physical activity (PA) and lower sedentary time (ST). However, whether fluctuations in these feelings contribute to the regulation of these behaviors is unclear. This study examined the extent to which within-person variability in positive affect and feeling energetic predicted participants' overall levels of PA and ST. DESIGN: This analysis combined data from four ecological momentary assessment (EMA) studies (agerange: 8-73 years) with ambulatory monitoring via waist-worn accelerometry (N=661). METHODS: Positive affect and energy were assessed through EMA several times per day across 4-7 days. Accelerometer data was used to create the following behavioral outcomes: (1) meeting MVPA guidelines (children: 60 minutes/day, adults: 30 minutes/day) and (2) minutes of ST per hour of accelerometer wear. A two-stage analytic approach was used to test the study aim. In the first stage, Mixed-Effects Location Scale Modeling decomposed mean levels and variability in positive affect and energy. In the second stage, a linear or logistic regression (depending on whether the outcome was continuous or dichotomous, respectively) was tested to investigate associations between subject-level mean and variability in EMA ratings and the behavioral outcome. RESULTS: Greater subject-level variability but not subject-level mean of feeling energetic was associated with lower odds of meeting MVPA guidelines (ß=-0.43, p<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Fluctuations in physical feeling states may deplete self-regulatory resources involved in planning and implementing PA behavior. Alternatively, being more physically active may stabilize one's perceived energy levels.

Parenting styles, food-related parenting practices, and children's healthy eating: A mediation analysis to examine relationships between parenting and child diet.

Parents exert a strong influence on their children's diet. While authoritative parenting style is linked to healthier weight and dietary outcomes in children, and authoritarian and permissive parenting styles with unhealthy eating, little is known about the mechanisms that mediate these relationships. Feeding styles are often examined in relation to child diet, but they do not consider the social and physical environmental contexts in which dietary behaviors occur. Therefore, this study examined whether parenting styles (authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive) were associated with three specific food-related parenting practices - mealtime structural practices (e.g., eating meals as a family), parent modeling of healthy food, and household food rules and whether these parenting practices mediated the association between parenting styles and children's diet. Participants were 174 mother-child dyads. Mothers (68% married, 58% college graduates, Mage = 41 years [SD = 6.2]) reported on their parenting practices using validated scales and parenting style using the Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire. Children (52% female, Mage = 10 years [SD = 0.9]) completed two telephone-based 24-hour dietary recalls. Dietary outcomes included the Healthy Eating Index (HEI)-2010 score, and fruit and vegetables and added sugar intake. Using PROCESS, multiple mediation cross-sectional analyses with parallel mediators using 10,000 bootstraps were performed. Significant indirect effects were observed with mealtime structure and the relationships between authoritative parenting and HEI-2010 score (b = 0.045, p < .05, CI = [0.006, 0.126]), authoritarian parenting and HEI-2010 score (b = -0.055, p < .05, CI = [-0.167, -0.001]), and permissive parenting and HEI-2010 score (b = -0.093, p < .05, CI = [-0.265, -0.008]). Child diet quality is affected by mealtime structural practices. Further examination of the features by which mealtime structural practices serve as a mechanism for parents to support healthy eating among their children may improve children's diet quality.

Within-Day Time-Varying Associations Between Behavioral Cognitions and Physical Activity in Adults.

This study used time-varying effect modeling to examine time-of-day differences in how behavioral cognitions predict subsequent physical activity (PA). Adults (N = 116) participated in three 4-day "bursts" of ecological momentary assessment (EMA). Participants were prompted with eight EMA questionnaires per day assessing behavioral cognitions (i.e., intentions, self-efficacy, outcome expectations) and wore an accelerometer during waking hours. Subsequent PA was operationalized as accelerometer-derived minutes of moderate- or vigorousintensity PA in the 2 hr following the EMA prompt. On weekdays, intentions positively predicted subsequent PA in the morning (9:25 a.m.-11:45 a.m.) and in the evening (8:15 p.m.-10:00 p.m.). Self-efficacy positively predicted subsequent PA on weekday evenings (7:35 p.m.-10:00 p.m.). Outcome expectations were unrelated to subsequent PA on weekdays. On weekend days, behavior cognitions and subsequent PA were unrelated regardless of time of day. This study identifies windows of opportunity and vulnerability for motivation-based PA interventions aiming to deliver intervention content within the context of adults' daily lives.

Habit strength moderates the effects of daily action planning prompts on physical activity but not sedentary behavior.

This study was designed to examine the moderating influence of habit strength on daily action planning effects on physical activity and sedentary behavior. A 2 by 2 design was used with experimental factors corresponding to action planning interventions for (a) engaging in physical activity and (b) limiting or interrupting sedentary behavior. At the end of each day for 1 week, university students (n = 195) completed (a) a questionnaire about their behavior during the day and behavioral intentions for the following day and (b) a planning intervention(s) corresponding to their randomly assigned experimental condition. Action planning increased physical activity in those with weak habits but decreased physical activity in those with strong habits compared with those who did not create action plans. Action planning did not impact sedentary behavior. Action planning was a useful behavior change technique for increasing physical activity in people with weak habits, but may be iatrogenic for those with strong habits.

A Daily Process Analysis of Physical Activity, Sedentary Behavior, and Perceived Cognitive Abilities.

OBJECTIVES: This study evaluated the role of both physical activity and sedentary behavior in daily perceptions of cognitive abilities and whether these relations exist within-person, between-person, or both. DESIGN: Non-experimental, intensive longitudinal research using ecological momentary assessments. METHOD: College students wore accelerometers and provided end-of-day reports on physical activity, sedentary behavior, and perceived cognitive abilities for 14 days. RESULTS: Across self-reports and objective measures of behavior, daily deviations in physical activity were positively associated with perceived cognitive abilities. Daily deviations in self-reported, but not objectively-assessed, sedentary behavior also were negatively associated with perceived cognitive abilities. Contrary to previous research, overall levels of physical activity and sedentary behaviors were not associated with perceived cognitive abilities. CONCLUSIONS: These findings indicate that physical activity has a within- rather than between-person association with perceived cognitive abilities although between-person associations effects may require longer monitoring periods to manifest. Further research is needed to establish the direction of causality and resolve whether the nature (rather than quantity) of sedentary activities influences cognition.

Daily satisfaction with life is regulated by both physical activity and sedentary behavior.

Recent research revealed that on days when college students engage in more physical activity than is typical for them, they also experience greater satisfaction with life (SWL). That work relied on self-reported physical activity and did not differentiate between low levels of physical activity and sedentary behavior. This study was designed to (1) determine if the association between self-reported physical activity and SWL would exist when physical activity was monitored objectively and (2) examine the between- and within-person associations among physical activity, sedentary behavior, and SWL. During a 14-day ecological momentary assessment study, college students (N = 128) wore an accelerometer to objectively measure physical activity and sedentary behavior, and they self-reported their physical activity, sedentary behavior, and SWL at the end of each day. Physical activity and sedentary behavior had additive, within-person associations with SWL across self-reported and objective-measures of behavior. Strategies to promote daily well-being should encourage college students to incorporate greater amounts of physical activity as well as limit their sedentary behavior.

Habits predict physical activity on days when intentions are weak.

Physical activity is regulated by controlled processes, such as intentions, and automatic processes, such as habits. Intentions relate to physical activity more strongly for people with weak habits than for people with strong habits, but people's intentions vary day by day. Physical activity may be regulated by habits unless daily physical activity intentions are strong. University students (N = 128) self-reported their physical activity habit strength and subsequently self-reported daily physical activity intentions and wore an accelerometer for 14 days. On days when people had intentions that were weaker than typical for them, habit strength was positively related to physical activity, but on days when people had typical or stronger intentions than was typical for them, habit strength was unrelated to daily physical activity. Efforts to promote physical activity may need to account for habits and the dynamics of intentions.

Intraday relations between physical activity and energy intake among behavioral weight loss participants.

OBJECTIVE: Weight loss results from a negative energy balance, when energy intake (EI) is less than energy expended, e.g., from physical activity (PA). However, PA may impact energy balance beyond energy expenditure alone, through indirect effects on eating behavior. Yet, no research has examined if engaging in PA-a central component of most weight loss programs-is associated with same-day EI among individuals with overweight/obesity pursuing weight loss. METHOD: Adults (N = 101) with overweight/obesity in a weight loss program were prescribed a reduced-calorie diet and PA regimen (250 min of moderate-to-vigorous PA at midtreatment). For 3 weeks at midtreatment, PA and EI were measured via an accelerometer and self-monitoring app, respectively. Multilevel models examined within-person relations between PA and EI preceding PA ("pre-PA"), acutely following PA ("acute post-PA," the 2 hr following PA), in the time following the acute post-PA period ("remaining time in day"), and across entire PA days ("full-day"), relative to non-PA matched time periods. RESULTS: EI was higher in the pre-PA and acute post-PA periods. There were no reliable differences in EI during the remaining time in day nor across the full-day on PA days versus within-subject matched non-PA days. There also was insufficient evidence to suggest EI pre-PA, post-PA, or across entire PA days, relative to non-PA matched time periods, was associated with percent weight change. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that engaging in PA was associated with different within-person EI patterns compared to non-PA days, though there was little evidence to support that these patterns relate to weight change. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

A daily process analysis of intentions and physical activity in college students.

Social-cognitive theories, such as the theory of planned behavior, posit intentions as proximal influences on physical activity (PA). This paper extends those theories by examining within-person variation in intentions and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) as a function of the unfolding constraints in people's daily lives (e.g., perceived time availability, fatigue, soreness, weather, overeating). College students (N = 63) completed a 14-day diary study over the Internet that rated daily motivation, contextual constraints, and MVPA. Key findings from multilevel analyses were that (1) between-person differences represented 46% and 33% of the variability in daily MVPA intentions and behavior, respectively; (2) attitudes, injunctive norms, self-efficacy, perceptions of limited time availability, and weekend status predicted daily changes in intention strength; and (3) daily changes in intentions, perceptions of limited time availability, and weekend status predicted day-to-day changes in MVPA. Embedding future motivation and PA research in the context of people's daily lives will advance understanding of individual PA change processes.

Affective responses during physical activity predicting same day and next day physical activity in emerging adulthood: an Ecological Momentary Assessment study.

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of the current study was to examine how affective responses during physical activity (PA) captured in real-time and real-world settings via Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA) predicted same day and next day physical activity. METHODS AND MEASURES: During a 10-day study, physically active participants wore an accelerometer which captured PA and triggered EMA prompts during PA to capture affect (e.g. positive, negative). Additional EMA prompts captured affect during non-PA. RESULTS: Emerging adults (n = 80; Mage = 22.8; MBMI = 25.3; 56% White, 79% Female) completed the study. On days when emerging adults experienced an increase in their average feelings of energy during PA compared to non-PA occasions, they tended to engage in more PA the same day. On days when emerging adults experienced an increase in their average feelings of fatigue during PA compared to non-PA occasions, they tended to engage in less PA the next day. Positive and negative affect during PA, compared to non-PA, was not associated with same or next day PA. CONCLUSIONS: There is inconsistent evidence that affective responses during PA can predict same day and next day PA. Future work should examine the affect-physical activity link among those who are insufficiently active and across person-specific micro-timescales.

Screen-based and non-screen-based sedentary behaviors are differentially associated with affective states in older adults.

Excessive sedentary behavior (SB) contributes to poor affective and physical feeling states, which is particularly concerning for older adults who are the most sedentary sector of the population. Specific types of SB have been shown to differentially impact health in cross-sectional and longitudinal studies, with screen-based SB more negatively impacting aspects of mental health. This study used Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA), a real-time, intensive longitudinal data capture methodology, to examine the differential impact of screen-based behaviors on momentary affective responses during SB in naturalistic settings. A diverse sample of older adults (pooled across 2 studies) completed an EMA protocol for 8-10 days with six randomly delivered, smartphone assessments per day. At each EMA prompt, participants reported their current activity, whether they were sitting while doing that activity, and affective states. Multilevel models assessed whether screen-based (vs. non-screen-based) behavior moderated affective response during SB. At the within-person level, older adults experienced less positive affect during SB when engaged in a screen-based behavior compared to a non-screen-based SB (B = -0.10, p < 0.01). At the between-person level, positive associations between SB and negative affect (B = 0.79, p = 0.03) were stronger if participants reported engaging in screen-based behaviors for a greater proportion of prompts. Among older adults, screen-based SB may lead to poorer affective states compared to non-screen-based SB. Interventions aiming to reduce SB in this population should consider targeting reductions in screen-based SB as means to improve affective states.