Amphetamine exposure during embryogenesis changes expression and function of the dopamine transporter in Caenorhabditis elegans offspring.

The dopamine transporter (DAT) is a transmembrane protein that regulates dopamine (DA) neurotransmission by binding to and moving DA from the synaptic cleft back into the neurons. Besides moving DA and other endogenous monoamines, DAT is also a neuronal carrier for exogenous compounds such as the psychostimulant amphetamine (Amph), and several studies have shown that Amph-induced behaviors require a functional DAT. Here, we demonstrate that exposure to Amph during early development causes behavioral, functional, and epigenetic modifications at the Caenorhabditis elegans DAT gene homolog, dat-1, in C. elegans offspring. Specifically, we show that, while embryos exposed to Amph generate adults that produce offspring with no obvious behavioral alterations, both adults and offspring exhibit an increased behavioral response when challenged with Amph. Our functional studies suggest that a decrease in DAT-1 expression underlies the increased behavioral response to Amph seen in offspring. Moreover, our epigenetic data suggest that histone methylation is a mechanism utilized by Amph to maintain changes in DAT-1 expression in offspring. Taken together, our data reveal that Amph, by altering the epigenetic landscape of DAT, propagates long-lasting functional and behavioral changes in offspring.

The Epigenetic Mechanisms of Amphetamine.

Amphetamine (AMPH) is a psychostimulant and the most prescribed drug to treat attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD). Although therapeutically used doses are generally well tolerated, numerous side effects are still known to occur, such as jitteriness, loss of appetite and psychosis. Moreover, AMPH is liable to be abused by users looking for increased alertness, weight loss or athletic performance. A growing body of evidence indicates that drugs of abuse, including AMPH, control gene expression through chromatin modifications. However, while numerous studies have investigated the molecular mechanisms of AMPH action, only a small number of studies have explored changes in gene expression caused by AMPH. This review examines the epigenetic changes induced by chronic and acute treatments with AMPH and includes, where relevant, data obtained with other psychostimulants such as methamphetamine and cocaine.

Harmonic and frequency modulated ultrasonic vocalizations reveal differences in conditioned and unconditioned reward processing.

Novelty and sensation seeking (NSS) and ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs) are both used as measures of individual differences in reward sensitivity in rodent models. High responders in the inescapable novelty screen have a greater response to low doses of amphetamine and acquire self-administration more rapidly, while the novelty place preference screen is positively correlated with compulsive drug seeking. These screens are uncorrelated and implicated in separate drug abuse models. 50 kHz USVs measure affective state in rats and are evoked by positive stimuli. NSS and USVs are each implicated in drug response, self-administration, and reveal differences in individual behavior, yet their relationship with each other is not understood. The present study screened rats for their response to novelty and measured USVs of all call types in response to heterospecific play to determine the relationships between these individual difference traits. Generally, we hypothesized that 50k Hz USVs would be positively correlated with the NPP screen, and that 22 kHz would be positively correlated with the IEN screen. Results indicate none of the screens were correlated indicating they are measuring different individual difference traits. However, examination of the subtypes of USVs indicated harmonic USVs and the novelty place preference were positively correlated. Harmonic 50 kHz USVs increased in response to reward associated context, suggesting animals conditioned to the heterospecific tickle arena and anticipated rewarding stimuli, while FM only increased in response to tickling. USV subtypes can be used to elucidate differences in attribution of incentive value across conditioned stimuli and receipt of rewarding stimuli. These data provide strong support that harmonic and FM USVs can be used to understand reward processing in addition to NSS.