Trait-dependent diversification in angiosperms: Patterns, models and data.

Variation in species richness across the tree of life, accompanied by the incredible variety of ecological and morphological characteristics found in nature, has inspired many studies to link traits with species diversification. Angiosperms are a highly diverse group that has fundamentally shaped life on earth since the Cretaceous, and illustrate how species diversification affects ecosystem functioning. Numerous traits and processes have been linked to differences in species richness within this group, but we know little about their relative importance and how they interact. Here, we synthesised data from 152 studies that used state-dependent speciation and extinction (SSE) models on angiosperm clades. Intrinsic traits related to reproduction and morphology were often linked to diversification but a set of universal drivers did not emerge as traits did not have consistent effects across clades. Importantly, SSE model results were correlated to data set properties - trees that were larger, older or less well-sampled tended to yield trait-dependent outcomes. We compared these properties to recommendations for SSE model use and provide a set of best practices to follow when designing studies and reporting results. Finally, we argue that SSE model inferences should be considered in a larger context incorporating species' ecology, demography and genetics.

The phylogenetic roots of human lethal violence.

The psychological, sociological and evolutionary roots of conspecific violence in humans are still debated, despite attracting the attention of intellectuals for over two millennia. Here we propose a conceptual approach towards understanding these roots based on the assumption that aggression in mammals, including humans, has a significant phylogenetic component. By compiling sources of mortality from a comprehensive sample of mammals, we assessed the percentage of deaths due to conspecifics and, using phylogenetic comparative tools, predicted this value for humans. The proportion of human deaths phylogenetically predicted to be caused by interpersonal violence stood at 2%. This value was similar to the one phylogenetically inferred for the evolutionary ancestor of primates and apes, indicating that a certain level of lethal violence arises owing to our position within the phylogeny of mammals. It was also similar to the percentage seen in prehistoric bands and tribes, indicating that we were as lethally violent then as common mammalian evolutionary history would predict. However, the level of lethal violence has changed through human history and can be associated with changes in the socio-political organization of human populations. Our study provides a detailed phylogenetic and historical context against which to compare levels of lethal violence observed throughout our history.

Temporal turnover in mycorrhizal interactions: a proof of concept with orchids.

Temporal turnover events in biotic interactions involving plants are rarely assessed, although such changes might afford a considerable acclimation potential to the plant. This could enable fairly rapid responses to short-term fluctuations in growth conditions as well as lasting responses to long-term climatic trends. Here, we present a classification of temporal turnover encompassing 11 possible scenarios. Using orchid mycorrhiza as a study model, we show that temporal changes are common, and discuss under which conditions temporal turnover of fungal symbiont is expected. We provide six research questions and identify technical challenges that we deem most important for future studies. Finally, we discuss how the same framework can be applied to other types of biotic interactions.

Variation in the reproductive strategy of a lichenized fungus along a climatic gradient.

Background and aims: Onset of reproduction and reproductive allocation patterns are key components of plant reproductive strategies. Life history theory predicts that plants in adverse environments for juvenile performance start reproduction at smaller sizes and exhibit higher reproductive allocation compared to their counterparts in favourable environments. Life history theory will gain in generality if its predictions are shown to apply to a broad range of organisms and modes of reproduction. This study tested whether the asexual reproductive strategy of a lichenized fungus changed along a climatic gradient. Methods: The variation in threshold size for asexual reproduction and asexual reproductive allocation of the lichen Lobarina scrobiculata was assessed in 18 populations (9665 individuals) along a climatic gradient spanning 800 km in latitude in Southern Europe. Using generalized linear models and standardized major axis regressions, the allometric relationships and the associated variation in climatic factors according to the changes in the threshold size for reproduction and reproductive allocation patterns were assessed. Key Results: The onset of reproduction was size-dependent and the reproductive allocation increased with individual size. Both the threshold size for reproduction and the reproductive allocation varied along the rainfall gradient. A lower threshold size for reproduction and higher reproductive allocation in drier, adverse locations were found. Therefore, populations in drier locations fitted the predictions of life history theory for sexually reproducing organisms in adverse environments for juvenile performance. Conclusions: This study highlights the applicability of the life history theory to fungi and to modes of reproduction other than sexual reproduction. Based on the intraspecific variation in the asexual reproductive strategy of a fungal organism with climatic factors, these findings expand the scope of life history theory predictions and increase our understanding of life history diversity and reproductive strategies across environments.

Unusual positional effects on flower sex in an andromonoecious tree: Resource competition, architectural constraints, or inhibition by the apical flower?

PREMISE OF THE STUDY: Two, nonmutually exclusive, mechanisms-competition for resources and architectural constraints-have been proposed to explain the proximal to distal decline in flower size, mass, and/or femaleness in indeterminate, elongate inflorescences. Whether these mechanisms also explain unusual positional effects such as distal to proximal declines of floral performance in determinate inflorescences, is understudied. METHODS: We tested the relative influence of these mechanisms in the andromonoecious wild olive tree, where hermaphroditic flowers occur mainly on apical and the most proximal positions in determinate inflorescences. We experimentally increased the availability of resources for the inflorescences by removing half of the inflorescences per twig or reduced resource availability by removing leaves. We also removed the apical flower to test its inhibitory effect on subapical flowers. KEY RESULTS: The apical flower had the highest probability of being hermaphroditic. Further down, however, the probability of finding a hermaphroditic flower decreased from the base to the tip of the inflorescences. An experimental increase of resources increased the probability of finding hermaphroditic flowers at each position, and vice versa. Removal of the apical flower increased the probability of producing hermaphroditic flowers in proximal positions but not in subapical positions. CONCLUSIONS: These results indicate an interaction between resource competition and architectural constraints in influencing the arrangement of the hermaphroditic and male flowers within the inflorescences of the wild olive tree. Subapical flowers did not seem to be hormonally suppressed by apical flowers. The study of these unusual positional effects is needed for a general understanding about the functional implications of inflorescence architecture.

Plant size and leaf area influence phenological and reproductive responses to warming in semiarid Mediterranean species.

Changes in vegetative and reproductive phenology rank among the most obvious plant responses to climate change. These responses vary broadly among species, but it is largely unknown whether they are mediated by functional attributes, such as size or foliar traits. Using a manipulative experiment conducted over two growing seasons, we evaluated the responses in reproductive phenology and output of 14 Mediterranean semiarid species belonging to three functional groups (grasses, nitrogen-fixing legumes and forbs) to a ~3°C increase in temperature, and assessed how leaf and size traits influenced them. Overall, warming advanced flowering and fruiting phenology, extended the duration of flowering and reduced the production of flowers and fruits. The observed reduction in flower and fruit production with warming was likely related to the decrease in soil moisture promoted by this treatment. Phenological responses to warming did not vary among functional groups, albeit forbs had an earlier reproductive phenology than legumes and grasses. Larger species with high leaf area, as well as those with small specific leaf area, had an earlier flowering and a longer flowering duration. The effects of warming on plant size and leaf traits were related to those on reproductive phenology and reproductive output. Species that decreased their leaf area under warming advanced more the onset of flowering, while those that increased their vegetative height produced more flowers. Our results advance our understanding of the phenological responses to warming of Mediterranean semiarid species, and highlight the key role of traits such as plant size and leaf area as determinants of such responses.

Work instability in rheumatoid arthritis patients from Argentina: prevalence and associated factors.

To determine the prevalence of and associated factors to work instability (WI) in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) Argentinean patients. Observational cross-sectional study that assessing employment status in currently working RA patients. They answered the validated version of RA work instability scale (RA-WIS). High-risk WI was considered when RA-WIS was ≥17. Factors associated with high-risk WI were examined by univariable and multivariable analysis. Four-hundred and fifty RA patients were enrolled; of these, 205 patients were currently employed, but only 172 have completed questionnaires required [RA-WIS and health assessment questionnaire (HAQ-A)]. Their mean age was 49.3 ± 10.8 years; 81.3 % were female; and their mean disease duration was 8.1 ± 7.2 years. Fifty-two percent of patients were doing manual work. The mean RA-WIS score was 11.4 ± 6.8, and 41 % of patients had a high-risk WI. High-risk WI was associated with radiographic erosions (p < 0.001) and HAQ-A >0.87 (p < 0.001) in the univariable analysis, whereas in the multivariable logistic regression analysis the variables associated with a high-risk WI were as follows: HAQ-A >0.87 [odds ratio (OR) 12.31; 95 % CI 5.38-28.18] and the presence of radiographic erosions (OR 4.848; 95 % CI 2.22-10.5). In this model, having a higher monthly income (OR 0.301; 95 % CI 0.096-0.943) and a better functional class (OR 0.151; 95 % CI 0.036-0.632) were protective. Forty-one percent of RA working patients had high-risk WI. The predictors of high RA-WIS were HAQ-A ≥0.87 and radiographic erosions, whereas having a better functional class and have higher incomes were protective.

Comparative medical importance of spider bites in Spain over 1997-2020: a retrospective study based on hospital cases coded using ICD.

Envenomation by terrestrial toxic animals is considered a serious risk to human health worldwide. Snakes, hymenopterans, spiders, and scorpions have mainly attracted the attention of medical literature. However, the relative importance of spiders has been studied only in a few countries. Here, we present the first retrospective study on the incidence of spider bites requiring hospital care in Spain, compared to bites or stings from snakes, hymenopterans, and scorpions. Using ICD9MC and ICD10 databases from the World Health Organization's International Classification of Diseases for the period 1997-2020, we quantified the cases of envenomation by spiders, compared to those by other terrestrial toxic animals, the demographic data of envenomation cases, the relative severity of spider bites, and the geographic distribution of envenomation cases. Overall, the incidence of acute intoxication by terrestrial toxic animals in Spain was ca. 1.23 cases per million inhabitants. In decreasing order of importance, cases were due to snakes, hymenopterans, spiders, scorpions, and myriapods. Fatal cases were extremely rare, caused mainly by hymenopterans. No fatalities were caused by spiders, scorpions, and myriapods. A greater incidence of snake bites occurred in northern Spain, but no geographical trends were found for spider bites or scorpion stings. Severe poisoning or life-threatening cases due to bites or stings from toxic terrestrial animals in Spain seems to be very low, especially for spiders, compared to other countries in the world. In general, spiders do not present a risk to human health and should not be considered a major driver of morbidity.

Addition of nocturnal pollinators modifies the structure of pollination networks.

Although the ecological network approach has substantially contributed to the study of plant-pollinator interactions, current understanding of their functional structure is biased towards diurnal pollinators. Nocturnal pollinators have been systematically ignored despite the publication of several studies that have tried to alleviate this diurnal bias. Here, we explored whether adding this neglected group of pollinators had a relevant effect on the overall architecture of three high mountain plant-pollinator networks. Including nocturnal moth pollinators modified network properties by decreasing total connectivity, connectance, nestedness and robustness to plant extinction; and increasing web asymmetry and modularity. Nocturnal moths were not preferentially connected to the most linked plants of the networks, and they were grouped into a specific "night" module in only one of the three networks. Our results indicate that ignoring the nocturnal component of plant-pollinator networks may cause changes in network properties different from those expected from random undersampling of diurnal pollinators. Consequently, the neglect of nocturnal interactions may provide a distorted view of the structure of plant-pollinator networks with relevant implications for conservation assessments.

Can botanic gardens serve as refuges for taxonomic and functional diversity of Odonata? The case of the botanic garden of Castilla-La Mancha (Spain).

In a scenario with declining biodiversity and habitat loss, botanic gardens could serve as refuges for invertebrates, but the opportunities they offer for animal conservation are still poorly understood. Odonata is a good model group for conservation studies, because it includes threatened species and responses to habitat disturbance are well documented. In this study, we assessed the role of the botanic garden of Castilla-La Mancha in Spain as a refuge for members of Odonata by analysing their taxonomic and functional diversity. We explored if the small size of the botanic garden might constrain the taxonomic diversity of Odonata and if low habitat diversity might limit their functional diversity. We sampled adult Odonata from five water bodies along a gradient of human impact and characterized the Odonata communities based on 12 functional traits in Odonata. We used a species-area relationship to control for differences in the size of water bodies. Compared with natural lakes, the Odonata communities contained less species and their functional diversity was lower in the botanic garden ponds, where generalist species were basically hosted. Despite these limitations, the botanic garden ponds hosted the number of species expected for natural water bodies with the moderate surface area and functional diversity, thereby demonstrating that they are a valuable habitat for Odonata in an urban environment. Appropriate management involving the removal of exotic fish and habitat diversification, including creating lotic environments, would increase the taxonomic and functional diversity of Odonata in this urban system. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10201-022-00704-3.

Opposing effects of plant traits on diversification.

Species diversity can vary dramatically across lineages due to differences in speciation and extinction rates. Here, we explore the effects of several plant traits on diversification, finding that most traits have opposing effects on diversification. For example, outcrossing may increase the efficacy of selection and adaptation but also decrease mate availability, two processes with contrasting effects on lineage persistence. Such opposing trait effects can manifest as differences in diversification rates that depend on ecological context, spatiotemporal scale, and associations with other traits. The complexity of pathways linking traits to diversification suggests that the mechanistic underpinnings behind their correlations may be difficult to interpret with any certainty, and context dependence means that the effects of specific traits on diversification are likely to differ across multiple lineages and timescales. This calls for taxonomically and context-controlled approaches to studies that correlate traits and diversification.

Labile sex expression in angiosperm species with sex chromosomes.

Here, we review the literature on sexual lability in dioecious angiosperm species with well-studied sex chromosomes. We distinguish three types of departures from strict dioecy, concerning either a minority of flowers in some individuals (leakiness) or the entire individual, which can constantly be bisexual or change sex. We found that for only four of the 22 species studied, reports of lability are lacking. The occurrence of lability is only weakly related to sex chromosome characteristics (number of sex-linked genes, age of the non-recombining region). These results contradict the naive idea that lability is an indication of the absence or the recent evolution of sex chromosomes, and thereby contribute to a growing consensus that sex chromosomes do not necessarily fix sex determination once and for all. We discuss some implications of these findings for the evolution of sex chromosomes, and suggest that more species with well-characterized lability should be studied with genomic data and tools. This article is part of the theme issue 'Sex determination and sex chromosome evolution in land plants'.

Where do monomorphic sexual systems fit in the evolution of dioecy? Insights from the largest family of angiosperms.

A range of hypothesized evolutionary pathways has been proposed for describing the evolution of dioecy. However, the evolutionary links between other sexual systems not directly involved in dioecy evolution remain largely unexplored, and hence, a comprehensive picture of evolutionary transitions between sexual systems is still lacking. Here, we explored the diversity and evolution of sexual systems in Asteraceae, the largest family of flowering plants, where almost all sexual systems are present. We used a phylogenetic approach to build a model of evolutionary transitions between sexual systems. The best model involved nine transitions, including those from hermaphroditism to andromonoecy, gynomonoecy and gynodioecy, those from gynomonoecy to monoecy and trimonoecy, two transitions to dioecy -one through gynodioecy and the other through monoecy - and reversals from monoecy to gynomonoecy and from gynomonoecy to hermaphroditism. Our reconstruction of the evolution of sexual systems in Asteraceae provided, for the first time, a joint view of the evolutionary transitions between seven sexual systems, unveiling the evolutionary links between monomorphic sexual systems. A pathway from hermaphroditism to monoecy through gynomonoecy, instead of from andromonoecy, was highly supported, which was consistent with a gradient of floral gender specialization.

Relative Contribution of Citizen Science, Museum Data and Publications in Delineating the Distribution of the Stag Beetle in Spain.

Reliable distribution maps are in the basis of insect conservation, but detailed chorological information is lacking for many insects of conservation concern (the Wallacean shortfall). Museum collections, entomological publications and citizen science projects can contribute to solve this Wallacean shortfall. Their relative contribution to the knowledge on the distribution of threatened insects has been scarcely explored, but it is important given that each of these three sources of information has its own biases and costs. Here we explore the contribution of museum data, entomological publications and citizen science in delineating the distribution of the European stag beetle in Spain. Citizen science contributed the highest number of records and grid cells occupied, as well as the highest number of grid cells not contributed by any other information source (unique grid cells). Nevertheless, both museum data and publications contributed almost 25% of all unique grid cells. Furthermore, the relative contribution of each source of information differed in importance among Spanish provinces. Given the pros and cons of museum data, publications and citizen science, we advise their combined use in cases, such as the European stag beetle in Spain, in which a broad, heterogeneous, sparsely populated territory has to be prospected.

The European Stag Beetle (Lucanus cervus) Monitoring Network: International Citizen Science Cooperation Reveals Regional Differences in Phenology and Temperature Response.

To address the decline in biodiversity, international cooperation in monitoring of threatened species is needed. Citizen science can play a crucial role in achieving this challenging goal, but most citizen science projects have been established at national or regional scales. Here we report on the establishment and initial findings of the European Stag Beetle Monitoring Network (ESBMN), an international network of stag beetle (Lucanus cervus) monitoring schemes using the same protocol. The network, started in 2016, currently includes 14 countries (see results) but with a strong variation in output regarding the number of transects (148 successful transects in total) and transect walks (1735). We found differences across European regions in the number of stag beetles recorded, related to phenology and temperature, but not for time of transect start. Furthermore, the initial experiences of the ESBMN regarding international cooperation, citizen science approach, and drop-out of volunteers is discussed. An international standardised protocol that allows some local variation is essential for international collaboration and data management, and analysis is best performed at the international level, whereas recruiting, training, and maintaining volunteers is best organised locally. In conclusion, we appeal for more joint international citizen science-based monitoring initiatives assisting international red-listing and conservation actions.

Development and characterization of two equine formulations towards SARS-CoV-2 proteins for the potential treatment of COVID-19.

In the current global emergency due to SARS-CoV-2 outbreak, passive immunotherapy emerges as a promising treatment for COVID-19. Among animal-derived products, equine formulations are still the cornerstone therapy for treating envenomations due to animal bites and stings. Therefore, drawing upon decades of experience in manufacturing snake antivenom, we developed and preclinically evaluated two anti-SARS-CoV-2 polyclonal equine formulations as potential alternative therapy for COVID-19. We immunized two groups of horses with either S1 (anti-S1) or a mixture of S1, N, and SEM mosaic (anti-Mix) viral recombinant proteins. Horses reached a maximum anti-viral antibody level at 7 weeks following priming, and showed no major adverse acute or chronic clinical alterations. Two whole-IgG formulations were prepared via hyperimmune plasma precipitation with caprylic acid and then formulated for parenteral use. Both preparations had similar physicochemical and microbiological quality and showed ELISA immunoreactivity towards S1 protein and the receptor binding domain (RBD). The anti-Mix formulation also presented immunoreactivity against N protein. Due to high anti-S1 and anti-RBD antibody content, final products exhibited high in vitro neutralizing capacity of SARS-CoV-2 infection, 80 times higher than a pool of human convalescent plasma. Pre-clinical quality profiles were similar among both products, but clinical efficacy and safety must be tested in clinical trials. The technological strategy we describe here can be adapted by other producers, particularly in low- and middle-income countries.

Fruit size decline from the margin to the center of capitula is the result of resource competition and architectural constraints.

Plants produce repeated structures, such as leaves, flowers, and fruits, which differ in size and shape. One example of this is fruit size, which is commonly observed to decrease from proximal to distal positions within an inflorescence. The resource limitation hypothesis proposes that because proximal fruits usually develop first, they have temporal priority on access to resources over distal fruits. The non-mutually exclusive architectural effects hypothesis suggests that these position effects in fruit size may also be due to inherent architectural variation along infructescence axes. We separated out the effects of resource competition and inflorescence architecture by removing the outer or the inner flowers within capitula of Tragopogon porrifolius. We also studied if fruit position influenced germination and seedling performance in order to assess fitness consequences of position effects. Inner fruits were significantly heavier when outer flowers were removed. However, outer fruits did not significantly increase when inner flowers were removed, suggesting later fruits were limited by the development of early fruits. Our findings also suggest that architectural constraints restricted the size of inner fruits in comparison with outer ones. We found that both resource competition and inflorescence architecture affected the fruit size of T. porrifolius, even though this species does not have linear, indeterminate inflorescences. We advance the hypothesis that, when such effects on fitness occur, resource competition-mediated position effects could turn, in evolutionary time, into architectural position effects.

Perpetrator Risk Markers for Intimate Terrorism and Situational Couple Violence: A Meta-Analysis.

Johnson developed a typology of intimate partner violence (IPV) which includes two different categories of violence: situational couple violence (SCV) and intimate terrorism (IT). Johnson proposed that IT is more likely to be found in clinical samples (e.g., batterer intervention programs or domestic violence shelters) compared to nonclinical (general population) samples. This meta-analysis (n = 149 studies; k = 216 effect sizes) examines differences in the strengths of IPV risk markers in clinical and nonclinical samples of male perpetrators and female victims. All variables (communication and conflict resolution, demand-withdraw patterns, relationship dissatisfaction, controlling behaviors, jealousy, patriarchal beliefs, power in the relationship, and stalking) were expected to be significantly related to IPV for both clinical and nonclinical populations. However, specific variables indicative of IT (control, jealousy, patriarchal beliefs, power, and stalking) were expected to be more strongly associated with clinical samples compared to nonclinical samples. As expected, most variables were significant for clinical and nonclinical populations, and IT risk markers (control, power, jealousy, and patriarchal beliefs) were significantly stronger risk markers for IPV in clinical samples. These results indicate that Johnson's typology may be conceptualized as representing a continuum of violence, with IT being more severe due to the controlling nature of the violence. Sample type needs to be considered when research about IPV is disseminated, as different degrees of IPV (IT vs. SCV) may be present depending on sample type. Implications from this study include the need to differentiate the level of violence and to tailor intervention for IPV appropriately.

Dust emission source characterization for visibility hazard assessment on Lordsburg Playa in Southwestern New Mexico, USA.

In drylands around the world, ephemeral lakes (playas) are common. Dry, wind-erodible playa sediments are potent local and regional sources of dust and PM10 (airborne particles with diameters less than 10 µm). Dust clouds often cause sudden and/or prolonged loss of visibility to travelers on downwind roadways. Lordsburg Playa, in southwestern New Mexico, USA is bisected by Interstate Highway 10. Dust storms emanating from the playa have been responsible for numerous visibility-related road closures (including 39 road closures between 2012 and 2019) causing major economic losses, in addition to well over a hundred dust-related vehicle crashes causing at least 41 lost lives in the last 53 years. In order to improve understanding of the surfaces responsible for the dust emissions, we investigated the critical wind friction velocity thresholds and the dust emissivities of surfaces representing areas typical of Lordsburg Playa's stream deltas, shorelines, and ephemerally flooded lakebed using a Portable In-Situ Wind ERosion Laboratory (PI-SWERL). Mean threshold friction velocities for PM10 entrainment ranged from less than 0.30 m s- 1 for areas in the delta and shoreline to greater than 0.55 m s- 1 for ephemerally flooded areas of the lakebed. Similarly, we quantified mean PM10 vertical flux rates ranging from less than 500 µg m- 2 s- 1 for ephemerally flooded areas of lakebed to nearly 25,000 µg m- 2 s- 1 for disturbed delta surfaces. The unlimited PM10 supply of the relatively coarse sediments along the western shoreline is problematic and indicates that this may be the source area for longer-term visibility reducing dust events and should be a focus area for dust mitigation efforts.