The murine lung as a factory to produce secreted intrapulmonary and circulatory proteins.

We have shown that a lentiviral vector (rSIV.F/HN) pseudotyped with the F and HN proteins from Sendai virus generates high levels of intracellular proteins after lung transduction. Here, we evaluate the use of rSIV.F/HN for production of secreted proteins. We assessed whether rSIV.F/HN transduction of the lung generates therapeutically relevant levels of secreted proteins in the lung and systemic circulation using human α1-anti-trypsin (hAAT) and factor VIII (hFVIII) as exemplars. Sedated mice were transduced with rSIV.F/HN carrying either the secreted reporter gene Gaussia luciferase or the hAAT or hFVIII cDNAs by nasal sniffing. rSIV.F/HN-hAAT transduction lead to therapeutically relevant hAAT levels (70 µg/ml) in epithelial lining fluid, with stable expression persisting for at least 19 months from a single application. Secreted proteins produced in the lung were released into the circulation and stable expression was detectable in blood. The levels of hFVIII in murine blood approached therapeutically relevant targets. rSIV.F/HN was also able to produce secreted hAAT and hFVIII in transduced human primary airway cells. rSIV.F/HN transduction of the murine lungs leads to long-lasting and therapeutically relevant levels of secreted proteins in the lung and systemic circulation. These data broaden the use of this vector platform for a large range of disease indications.

Crystal structure of TtgV in complex with its DNA operator reveals a general model for cooperative DNA binding of tetrameric gene regulators.

The majority of bacterial gene regulators bind as symmetric dimers to palindromic DNA operators of 12-20 base pairs (bp). Multimeric forms of proteins, including tetramers, are able to recognize longer operator sequences in a cooperative manner, although how this is achieved is not well understood due to the lack of complete structural information. Models, instead of structures, of complete tetrameric assembly on DNA exist in literature. Here we present the crystal structures of the multidrug-binding protein TtgV, a gene repressor that controls efflux pumps, alone and in complex with a 42-bp DNA operator containing two TtgV recognition sites at 2.9 Å and 3.4 Å resolution. These structures represent the first full-length functional tetrameric protein in complex with its intact DNA operator containing two continuous recognition sites. TtgV binds to its DNA operator as a highly asymmetric tetramer and induces considerable distortions in the DNA, resulting in a 60° bend. Upon binding to its operator, TtgV undergoes large conformational changes at the monomeric, dimeric, and tetrameric levels. The structures here reveal a general model for cooperative DNA binding of tetrameric gene regulators and provide a structural basis for a large body of biochemical data and a reinterpretation of previous models for tetrameric gene regulators derived from partial structural data.

Preparation for a first-in-man lentivirus trial in patients with cystic fibrosis.

We have recently shown that non-viral gene therapy can stabilise the decline of lung function in patients with cystic fibrosis (CF). However, the effect was modest, and more potent gene transfer agents are still required. Fuson protein (F)/Hemagglutinin/Neuraminidase protein (HN)-pseudotyped lentiviral vectors are more efficient for lung gene transfer than non-viral vectors in preclinical models. In preparation for a first-in-man CF trial using the lentiviral vector, we have undertaken key translational preclinical studies. Regulatory-compliant vectors carrying a range of promoter/enhancer elements were assessed in mice and human air-liquid interface (ALI) cultures to select the lead candidate; cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance receptor (CFTR) expression and function were assessed in CF models using this lead candidate vector. Toxicity was assessed and 'benchmarked' against the leading non-viral formulation recently used in a Phase IIb clinical trial. Integration site profiles were mapped and transduction efficiency determined to inform clinical trial dose-ranging. The impact of pre-existing and acquired immunity against the vector and vector stability in several clinically relevant delivery devices was assessed. A hybrid promoter hybrid cytosine guanine dinucleotide (CpG)- free CMV enhancer/elongation factor 1 alpha promoter (hCEF) consisting of the elongation factor 1α promoter and the cytomegalovirus enhancer was most efficacious in both murine lungs and human ALI cultures (both at least 2-log orders above background). The efficacy (at least 14% of airway cells transduced), toxicity and integration site profile supports further progression towards clinical trial and pre-existing and acquired immune responses do not interfere with vector efficacy. The lead rSIV.F/HN candidate expresses functional CFTR and the vector retains 90-100% transduction efficiency in clinically relevant delivery devices. The data support the progression of the F/HN-pseudotyped lentiviral vector into a first-in-man CF trial in 2017.

Assessment of F/HN-pseudotyped lentivirus as a clinically relevant vector for lung gene therapy.

RATIONALE: Ongoing efforts to improve pulmonary gene transfer thereby enabling gene therapy for the treatment of lung diseases, such as cystic fibrosis (CF), has led to the assessment of a lentiviral vector (simian immunodeficiency virus [SIV]) pseudotyped with the Sendai virus envelope proteins F and HN. OBJECTIVES: To place this vector onto a translational pathway to the clinic by addressing some key milestones that have to be achieved. METHODS: F/HN-SIV transduction efficiency, duration of expression, and toxicity were assessed in mice. In addition, F/HN-SIV was assessed in differentiated human air-liquid interface cultures, primary human nasal epithelial cells, and human and sheep lung slices. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: A single dose produces lung expression for the lifetime of the mouse (~2 yr). Only brief contact time is needed to achieve transduction. Repeated daily administration leads to a dose-related increase in gene expression. Repeated monthly administration to mouse lower airways is feasible without loss of gene expression. There is no evidence of chronic toxicity during a 2-year study period. F/HN-SIV leads to persistent gene expression in human differentiated airway cultures and human lung slices and transduces freshly obtained primary human airway epithelial cells. CONCLUSIONS: The data support F/HN-pseudotyped SIV as a promising vector for pulmonary gene therapy for several diseases including CF. We are now undertaking the necessary refinements to progress this vector into clinical trials.

Assessment of the nuclear pore dilating agent trans-cyclohexane-1,2-diol in differentiated airway epithelium.

BACKGROUND: The nuclear membrane of differentiated airway epithelial cells is a significant barrier for nonviral vectors. Trans-cyclohexane-1,2-diol (TCHD) is an amphipathic alcohol that has been shown to collapse nuclear pore cores and allow the uptake of macromolecules that would otherwise be too large for nuclear entry. Previous studies have shown that TCHD can increase lipid-mediated transfection in vitro. METHODS: We aimed to reproduce these in vitro studies using the cationic lipid GL67A, which we are currently assessing in cystic fibrosis trials and, more importantly, we assessed the effects of TCHD on transfection efficiency in differentiated airway epithelium ex vivo and in mouse lung in vivo using three different drug delivery protocols (nebulisation and bolus administration of TCHD to the mouse lung, as well as perfusion of TCHD to the nasal epithelium, which prolongs contact time between the airway epithelium and drug). RESULTS: TCHD (0.5-2%) dose-dependently increased Lipofectamine 2000 and GL67A-mediated transfection of 293T cells by up to 2 logs. Encouragingly, exposure to 8% TCHD (but not 0.5% or 2.0%) increased gene expression in fully differentiated human air liquid interface cultures by approximately 20-fold, although this was accompanied by significant cell damage. However, none of the TCHD treated mice in any of the three protocols had higher gene expression compared to no TCHD controls. CONCLUSIONS: Although TCHD significantly increases gene transfer in cell lines and differentiated airway epithelium ex vivo, this effect is lost in vivo and further highlights that promising in vitro findings often cannot be translated into in vivo applications.

Correction of a chronic pulmonary disease through lentiviral vector-mediated protein expression.

We developed a novel lentiviral vector, pseudotyped with the F and HN proteins from Sendai virus (rSIV.F/HN), that produces long-lasting, high-efficiency transduction of the respiratory epithelium. Here we addressed whether this platform technology can secrete sufficient levels of a therapeutic protein into the lungs to ameliorate a fatal pulmonary disease as an example of its translational capability. Pulmonary alveolar proteinosis (PAP) results from alveolar granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) insufficiency, resulting in abnormal surfactant homeostasis and consequent ventilatory problems. Lungs of GM-CSF knockout mice were transduced with a single dose of rSIV.F/HN-expressing murine GM-CSF (mGM-CSF; 1e5-92e7 transduction units [TU]/mouse); mGM-CSF expression was dose related and persisted for at least 11 months. PAP disease biomarkers were rapidly and persistently corrected, but we noted a narrow toxicity/efficacy window. rSIV.F/HN may be a useful platform technology to deliver therapeutic proteins for lung diseases requiring long-lasting and stable expression of secreted proteins.

Toward gene therapy for cystic fibrosis using a lentivirus pseudotyped with Sendai virus envelopes.

Gene therapy for cystic fibrosis (CF) is making encouraging progress into clinical trials. However, further improvements in transduction efficiency are desired. To develop a novel gene transfer vector that is improved and truly effective for CF gene therapy, a simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) was pseudotyped with envelope proteins from Sendai virus (SeV), which is known to efficiently transduce unconditioned airway epithelial cells from the apical side. This novel vector was evaluated in mice in vivo and in vitro directed toward CF gene therapy. Here, we show that (i) we can produce relevant titers of an SIV vector pseudotyped with SeV envelope proteins for in vivo use, (ii) this vector can transduce the respiratory epithelium of the murine nose in vivo at levels that may be relevant for clinical benefit in CF, (iii) this can be achieved in a single formulation, and without the need for preconditioning, (iv) expression can last for 15 months, (v) readministration is feasible, (vi) the vector can transduce human air-liquid interface (ALI) cultures, and (vii) functional CF transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) chloride channels can be generated in vitro. Our data suggest that this lentiviral vector may provide a step change in airway transduction efficiency relevant to a clinical programme of gene therapy for CF.

Crystal structures of multidrug binding protein TtgR in complex with antibiotics and plant antimicrobials.

Antibiotic resistance is a widely spread phenomenon. One major mechanism that underlies antibiotic resistance in bacteria is the active extrusion of toxic compounds through the membrane-bound efflux pumps that are often regulated at the transcriptional level. TtgR represses the transcription of TtgABC, a key efflux pump in Pseudomonas putida, which is highly resistant to antibiotics, solvents and toxic plant secondary products. Previously we showed that TtgR is the only reported repressor that binds to different classes of natural antimicrobial compounds, which are also extruded by the efflux pump. We report here five high-resolution crystal structures of TtgR from the solvent-tolerant strain DOT-T1E, including TtgR in complex with common antibiotics and plant secondary metabolites. We provide structural basis for the unique ligand binding properties of TtgR. We identify two distinct and overlapping ligand binding sites; the first one is broader and consists of mainly hydrophobic residues, whereas the second one is deeper and contains more polar residues including Arg176, a unique residue present in the DOT-T1E strain but not in other Pseudomonas strains. Phloretin, a plant antimicrobial, can bind to both binding sites with distinct binding affinities and stoichiometries. Results on ligand binding properties of native and mutant TtgR proteins using isothermal titration calorimetry confirm the binding affinities and stoichiometries, and suggest a potential positive cooperativity between the two binding sites. The importance of Arg176 in phloretin binding was further confirmed by the reduced ability of phloretin in releasing the mutant TtgR from bound DNA compared to the native protein. The results presented here highlight the importance and versatility of regulatory systems in bacterial antibiotic resistance and open up new avenues for novel antimicrobial development.

In vivo imaging of gene transfer to the respiratory tract.

Imaging of in vivo gene expression using luciferase expression in various organs has been used for several years. In contrast to other organs, in vivo imaging of the lung, particularly after non-viral gene transfer has not been extensively studied. The aim of this study was to address several questions: (1) Does in vivo light emission correlate with standard tissue homogenate-based luciferase detection in a dose-dependent manner? Recombinant Sendai virus (SeV) transduces airway epithelial cells very efficiently and was used to address this question, (2) Is the sensitivity of the assay sufficient to detect non-viral gene transfer? We treated mice with SeV-Lux vector using our standard "sniffing" protocol, a method that predominantly results in lung deposition. Dose-related in vivo light emission was visible in all animals. Importantly, there was a significant correlation (r>0.90, p<0.0001) between the in vivo and ex vivo assays in both the left and right lung. We next transfected the nasal epithelium via nasal perfusion or the lungs ("sniffing") of mice with a luciferase plasmid (pCIKLux) complexed to the cationic lipid GL67 (n=25-27/group) and imaged luciferase expression in vivo 24h after transfection. Gene expression was detectable in both organs. Correlation between the in vivo and ex vivo assays was significant (r=0.52, p<0.005) in the left, but not the right lung. The correlation in the nose was weaker (r=0.45, p<0.05). To our knowledge these studies show for the first time that this non-invasive method of assessing pulmonary gene transfer is viable for evaluating non-viral gene transfer agents.

Ex Vivo and In Vivo Lentivirus-Mediated Transduction of Airway Epithelial Progenitor Cells.

A key challenge in pulmonary gene therapy for cystic fibrosis is to provide long-term correction of the genetic defect. This may be achievable by targeting airway epithelial stem/progenitor cells with an integrating vector. Here, we evaluated the ability of a lentiviral vector, derived from the simian immunodeficiency virus and pseudotyped with F and HN envelope proteins from Sendai virus, to transduce progenitor basal cells of the mouse nasal airways. We first transduced basal cell-enriched cultures ex vivo and confirmed efficient transduction of cytokeratin-5 positive cells. We next asked whether progenitor cells could be transduced in vivo. We evaluated the transduction efficiency in mice pretreated by intranasal administration of polidocanol to expose the progenitor cell layer. Compared to control mice, polidocanol treated mice demonstrated a significant increase in the number of transduced basal cells at 3 and 14 days post vector administration. At 14 days, the epithelium of treated mice contained clusters (4 to 8 adjacent cells) of well differentiated ciliated, as well as basal cells suggesting a clonal expansion. These results indicate that our lentiviral vector can transduce progenitor basal cells in vivo, although transduction required denudation of the surface epithelium prior to vector administration.

Repeated nebulisation of non-viral CFTR gene therapy in patients with cystic fibrosis: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 2b trial.

BACKGROUND: Lung delivery of plasmid DNA encoding the CFTR gene complexed with a cationic liposome is a potential treatment option for patients with cystic fibrosis. We aimed to assess the efficacy of non-viral CFTR gene therapy in patients with cystic fibrosis. METHODS: We did this randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 2b trial in two cystic fibrosis centres with patients recruited from 18 sites in the UK. Patients (aged ≥12 years) with a forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV1) of 50-90% predicted and any combination of CFTR mutations, were randomly assigned, via a computer-based randomisation system, to receive 5 mL of either nebulised pGM169/GL67A gene-liposome complex or 0.9% saline (placebo) every 28 days (plus or minus 5 days) for 1 year. Randomisation was stratified by % predicted FEV1 (<70 vs ≥70%), age (<18 vs ≥18 years), inclusion in the mechanistic substudy, and dosing site (London or Edinburgh). Participants and investigators were masked to treatment allocation. The primary endpoint was the relative change in % predicted FEV1. The primary analysis was per protocol. This trial is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT01621867. FINDINGS: Between June 12, 2012, and June 24, 2013, we randomly assigned 140 patients to receive placebo (n=62) or pGM169/GL67A (n=78), of whom 116 (83%) patients comprised the per-protocol population. We noted a significant, albeit modest, treatment effect in the pGM169/GL67A group versus placebo at 12 months' follow-up (3.7%, 95% CI 0.1-7.3; p=0.046). This outcome was associated with a stabilisation of lung function in the pGM169/GL67A group compared with a decline in the placebo group. We recorded no significant difference in treatment-attributable adverse events between groups. INTERPRETATION: Monthly application of the pGM169/GL67A gene therapy formulation was associated with a significant, albeit modest, benefit in FEV1 compared with placebo at 1 year, indicating a stabilisation of lung function in the treatment group. Further improvements in efficacy and consistency of response to the current formulation are needed before gene therapy is suitable for clinical care; however, our findings should also encourage the rapid introduction of more potent gene transfer vectors into early phase trials. FUNDING: Medical Research Council/National Institute for Health Research Efficacy and Mechanism Evaluation Programme.

Secreted Gaussia luciferase as a sensitive reporter gene for in vivo and ex vivo studies of airway gene transfer.

The cationic lipid GL67A is one of the more efficient non-viral gene transfer agents (GTAs) for the lungs, and is currently being evaluated in an extensive clinical trial programme for cystic fibrosis gene therapy. Despite conferring significant expression of vector-specific mRNA following transfection of differentiated human airway cells cultured on air liquid interfaces (ALI) cultures and nebulisation into sheep lung in vivo we were unable to detect robust levels of the standard reporter gene Firefly luciferase (FLuc). Recently a novel secreted luciferase isolated from Gaussia princeps (GLuc) has been described. Here, we show that (1) GLuc is a more sensitive reporter gene and offers significant advantages over the traditionally used FLuc in pre-clinical models for lung gene transfer that are difficult to transfect, (2) GL67A-mediated gene transfection leads to significant production of recombinant protein in these models, (3) promoter activity in ALI cultures mimics published in vivo data and these cultures may, therefore, be suitable to characterise promoter activity in a human ex vivo airway model and (4) detection of GLuc in large animal broncho-alveolar lavage fluid and serum facilitates assessment of duration of gene expression after gene transfer to the lungs. In summary, we have shown here that GLuc is a sensitive reporter gene and is particularly useful for monitoring gene transfer in difficult to transfect models of the airway and lung. This has allowed us to validate that GL67A, which is currently in clinical use, can generate significant amounts of recombinant protein in fully differentiated human air liquid interface cultures and the ovine lung in vivo.

The use of carboxymethylcellulose gel to increase non-viral gene transfer in mouse airways.

We have assessed whether viscoelastic gels known to inhibit mucociliary clearance can increase lipid-mediated gene transfer. Methylcellulose or carboxymethylcellulose (0.25-1.5%) was mixed with complexes of the cationic lipid GL67A and plasmids encoding luciferase and perfused onto the nasal epithelium of mice. Survival after perfusion with 1% CMC or 1% MC was 90 and 100%, respectively. In contrast 1.5% CMC was uniformly lethal likely due to the viscous solution blocking the airways. Perfusion with 0.5% CMC containing lipid/DNA complexes reproducibly increased gene expression by approximately 3-fold (n=16, p<0.05). Given this benefit, likely related to increased duration of contact, we also assessed the effect of prolonging contact time of the liposome/DNA complexes by delivering our standard 80 microg DNA dose over either approximately 22 or 60 min of perfusion. This independently increased gene transfer by 6-fold (n=8, p<0.05) and could be further enhanced by the addition of 0.5% CMC, leading to an overall 25-fold enhancement (n=8, p<0.001) in gene expression. As a result of these interventions CFTR transgene mRNA transgene levels were increased several logs above background. Interestingly, this did not lead to correction of the ion transport defects in the nasal epithelium of cystic fibrosis mice nor for immunohistochemical quantification of CFTR expression. To assess if 0.5% CMC also increased gene transfer in the mouse lung, we used whole body nebulisation chambers. CMC was nebulised for 1h immediately before, or simultaneously with GL67A/pCIKLux. The former did not increase gene transfer, whereas co-administration significantly increased gene transfer by 4-fold (p<0.0001, n=18). This study suggests that contact time of non-viral gene transfer agents is a key factor for gene delivery, and suggests two methods which may be translatable for use in man.

The role of doxorubicin in non-viral gene transfer in the lung.

Proteasome inhibitors have been shown to increase adeno-associated virus (AAV)-mediated transduction in vitro and in vivo. To assess if proteasome inhibitors also increase lipid-mediated gene transfer with relevance to cystic fibrosis (CF), we first assessed the effects of doxorubicin and N-acetyl-l-leucinyl-l-leucinal-l-norleucinal in non-CF (A549) and CF (CFTE29o-) airway epithelial cell lines. CFTE29o- cells did not show a response to Dox or LLnL; however, gene transfer in A549 cells increased in a dose-related fashion (p < 0.05), up to approximately 20-fold respectively at the optimal dose (no treatment: 9.3 x 10(4) +/- 1.5 x 10(3), Dox: 1.6 x 10(6)+/-2.6 x 10(5), LLnL: 1.9 x 10(6) +/- 3.2 x 10(5)RLU/mg protein). As Dox is used clinically in cancer chemotherapy we next assessed the effect of this drug on non-viral lung gene transfer in vivo. CF knockout mice were injected intraperitoneally (IP) with Dox (25-100 mg/kg) immediately before nebulisation with plasmid DNA carrying a luciferase reporter gene under the control of a CMV promoter/enhancer (pCIKLux) complexed to the cationic lipid GL67A. Dox also significantly (p < 0.05) increased expression of a plasmid regulated by an elongation factor 1alpha promoter (hCEFI) approximately 8-fold. Although administration of Dox before lung gene transfer may not be a clinically viable option, understanding how Dox increases lung gene expression may help to shed light on intracellular bottle-necks to gene transfer, and may help to identify other adjuncts that may be more appropriate for use in man.

The multidrug efflux regulator TtgV recognizes a wide range of structurally different effectors in solution and complexed with target DNA: evidence from isothermal titration calorimetry.

TtgV modulates the expression of the ttgGHI operon, which encodes an efflux pump that extrudes a wide variety of chemicals including mono- and binuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, aliphatic alcohols, and antibiotics of dissimilar chemical structure. Using a 'lacZ fusion to the ttgG promoter, we show that the most efficient in vivo inducers were 1-naphthol, 2,3-dihydroxynaphthalene, 4-nitrotoluene, benzonitrile, and indole. The thermodynamic parameters for the binding of different effector molecules to purified TtgV were determined by isothermal titration calorimetry. For the majority of effectors, the interaction was enthalpy-driven and counterbalance by unfavorable entropy changes. The TtgV-effector dissociation constants were found to vary between 2 and 890 mum. There was a relationship between TtgV affinity for the different effectors and their potential to induce gene expression in vivo, indicating that the effector binding constant is a major determinant for efficient efflux pump gene expression. Equilibrium dialysis and isothermal titration calorimetry studies indicated that a TtgV dimer binds one effector molecule. No evidence for the simultaneous binding of multiple effectors to TtgV was obtained. The binding of TtgV to a 63-bp DNA fragment containing its cognate operator was tight and entropy-driven (K(D) = 2.4 +/- 0.35 nm, DeltaH = 5.5 +/- 0.04 kcal/mol). The TtgV-DNA complex was shown to bind 1-napthol with an affinity comparable with the free soluble TtgV protein, K(D) = 4.8 +/- 0.19 and 3.0 +/- 0.15 mum, respectively. The biological relevance of this finding is discussed.