MiRNA-related metastasis in oral cancer: moving and shaking.

Across the world, oral cancer is a prevalent tumor. Over the years, both its mortality and incidence have grown. Oral cancer metastasis is a complex process involving cell invasion, migration, proliferation, and egress from cancer tissue either by lymphatic vessels or blood vessels. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are essential short non-coding RNAs, which can act either as tumor suppressors or as oncogenes to control cancer development. Cancer metastasis is a multi-step process, in which miRNAs can inhibit or stimulate metastasis at all stages, including epithelial-mesenchymal transition, migration, invasion, and colonization, by targeting critical genes in these pathways. On the other hand, long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) and circular RNAs (circRNAs), two different types of non-coding RNAs, can regulate cancer metastasis by affecting gene expression through cross-talk with miRNAs. We reviewed the scientific literature (Google Scholar, Scopus, and PubMed) for the period 2000-2023 to find reports concerning miRNAs and lncRNA/circRNA-miRNA-mRNA networks, which control the spread of oral cancer cells by affecting invasion, migration, and metastasis. According to these reports, miRNAs are involved in the regulation of metastasis pathways either by directly or indirectly targeting genes associated with metastasis. Moreover, circRNAs and lncRNAs can induce or suppress oral cancer metastasis by acting as competing endogenous RNAs to inhibit the effect of miRNA suppression on specific mRNAs. Overall, non-coding RNAs (especially miRNAs) could help to create innovative therapeutic methods for the control of oral cancer metastases.

SARS-CoV-2-associated organs failure and inflammation: a focus on the role of cellular and viral microRNAs.

SARS-CoV-2 has been responsible for the recent pandemic all over the world, which has caused many complications. One of the hallmarks of SARS-CoV-2 infection is an induced immune dysregulation, in some cases resulting in cytokine storm syndrome, acute respiratory distress syndrome and many organs such as lungs, brain, and heart that are affected during the SARS-CoV-2 infection. Several physiological parameters are altered as a result of infection and cytokine storm. Among them, microRNAs (miRNAs) might reflect this poor condition since they play a significant role in immune cellular performance including inflammatory responses. Both host and viral-encoded miRNAs are crucial for the successful infection of SARS-CoV-2. For instance, dysregulation of miRNAs that modulate multiple genes expressed in COVID-19 patients with comorbidities (e.g., type 2 diabetes, and cerebrovascular disorders) could affect the severity of the disease. Therefore, altered expression levels of circulating miRNAs might be helpful to diagnose this illness and forecast whether a COVID-19 patient could develop a severe state of the disease. Moreover, a number of miRNAs could inhibit the expression of proteins, such as ACE2, TMPRSS2, spike, and Nsp12, involved in the life cycle of SARS-CoV-2. Accordingly, miRNAs represent potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets for this devastating viral disease. In the current study, we investigated modifications in miRNA expression and their influence on COVID-19 disease recovery, which may be employed as a therapy strategy to minimize COVID-19-related disorders.

Immune-checkpoint expression in antigen-presenting cells (APCs) of cytomegaloviruses infection after transplantation: as a diagnostic biomarker.

Cytomegalovirus (CMV), a member of the Herpesviridae family, mostly causes only slight feverish symptoms or can be asymptomatic in immunocompetent individuals. However, it is known to be particularly a significant cause of morbidity in immunocompromised patients, including transplant recipients, whose immune system has been weakened due to the consumption of immunosuppressor drugs. Therefore, the diagnosis of CMV infection after transplantation is crucial. New diagnostic methods for the quick detection of CMV have been developed as a result of understanding the clinical importance of invasive CMV. Antigen-presenting cells (APCs) and T cells are important components of the immune system and it may be possible to diagnose viral infections using immunological markers, such as lymphocytosis, cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL), and serum cytokine levels. Moreover, PD-1, CTLA 4, and TIGIT, which are expressed on certain T cells and antigen-presenting cells, are over-expressed during the infection. The assessment of CMV infection based on T cell and APC activity, and the expression of immunological checkpoints, can be helpful for the diagnosis of transplant patients at risk for CMV infection. In this review, we will investigate how immune checkpoints affect immune cells and how they impair organ transplantation after CMV infection.

PBMC MicroRNAs: Promising Biomarkers for the Differential Diagnosis of COVID-19 Patients with Abnormal Coagulation Indices.

MicroRNAs, or miRNAs, may involve in coagulation and inflammation pathways caused by severe Coronavirus disease (COVID-19). Accordingly, this attempt was made to explore the behavior of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) miRNAs as effective biomarkers to diagnose COVID-19 patients with normal and abnormal coagulation indices. We selected the targeted miRNAs (miR-19a-3p, miR-223-3p, miR-143-5p, miR-494-3p and miR-301a-5p) according to previous reports, whose PBMC levels were then determined by real-time PCR. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve was obtained to clarify the diagnostic potency of studied miRNAs. The differentially expressed miRNA profiles and corresponding biological activities were predicted in accordance with bioinformatics data. Targeted miRNAs' expression profiles displayed a significant difference between COVID-19 subjects with normal and abnormal coagulation indices. Moreover, the average miR-223-3p level expressed in COVID-19 cases with normal coagulation indices was significantly lower than that in healthy controls. Based on data from ROC analysis, miR-223-3p and miR-494-3p are promising biomarkers to distinguish the COVID-19 cases with normal or abnormal coagulation indices. Bioinformatics data highlighted the prominent role of selected miRNAs in the inflammation and TGF-beta signaling pathway. The differences existed in the expression profiles of selected miRNAs between the groups introduced miR-494-3p and miR-223-3p as potent biomarkers to prognosis the incidence of COVID-19.

Human papilloma virus (HPV) and prostate cancer (PCa): The potential role of HPV gene expression and selected cellular MiRNAs in PCa development.

BACKGROUND: Prostate cancer (PCa) is one of the most common and health-threatening cancers in men worldwide. The human papillomavirus (HPV) is considered one of the organisms with the potential to be involved in the progression of this cancer. In the present study, we evaluated the association between the expression levels of HPV genes with the expression of selected cellular miRNAs (miR-19a, miR-21, miR-23b, miR-34a, miR-150-5p, and miR-155) and their targets genes (P53, Rb, c-Myc, TIMP-1, MMP-2, MMP-9, PDCD4, Bcl-2, and Survivin) in PCa tissue samples. METHODS: HPV detection and genotyping were performed on the tissues of 112 PCa patients and 39 healthy individuals. The expression profile of miRNA was evaluated by SYBR Green-based real-time PCR. As well Human Survivin ELISA Kit was utilized to determine the concentrations of Retinoblastoma, P53, survivin, Bcl-2, c-Myc, TIMP-1, MMP-2, MMP-9, and PDCD4 in the prostate tissues. RESULTS: According to our findings, HPV genome was detected in 28.7% (21/73) of PCa tissue specimens and 17.94% (7/39) control samples. There was no significant association between the presence of HPV infection with PCa (OR = 2.01, 95%CI = 0.8-5.68, P = 0.102). We found that mean expression level of miR-19a (3.7 ± 4.3, p-value: 0.0007), and -21 (2.5 ± 2.8, p-value<0.0001) were significantly higher and miR-23b (-2.14 ± 3.08, p-value: 0.003) and -34a (-3.12 ± 3.28, p-value: 0.0001) levels were significantly lower in PCa tissue samples than in control tissue samples. CONCLUSION: Present research indicated that HPV positive PCa has a distinct miRNA profile compared with HPV negative PCa.

Expression profiling of inflammation-related genes including IFI-16, NOTCH2, CXCL8, THBS1 in COVID-19 patients.

The present study aimed to scrutinize the expression profile of inflammatory-related genes (IFI-16, NOTCH2, CXCL8, and THBS1) from acute to post-acute stage of this infectious epidemic. The current cross-sectional study consisted of 53 acute-phase COVID-19 patients and 53 healthy individuals between February and March 2021. The extraction of total RNA was performed from PBMC specimens and also expression level of selected genes (IFI-16, NOTCH2, CXCL8, and THBS1) was evaluated by real-time PCR. Subsequently, levels of these factors were re-measured six weeks after the acute phase to determine if the levels of chosen genes returned to normal after the acute phase of COVID-19. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve was plotted to test potential of genes as a diagnostic biomarker. The expression levels of inflammatory-related genes were significantly different between healthy and COVID-19 subjects. Besides, a significant higher CXCL8 level was found in the acute-phase COVID-19 compared to post-acute-phase infection which may be able to be considered as a potential biomarker for distinguishing between the acute phases from the post-acute-phase status. Deregulation of the inflammatory-related genes in COVID-19 patients, especially CXCL-8, can be serving as potent biomarkers to manage the COVID-19 infection.

SARS-CoV-2: Receptor and Co-receptor Tropism Probability.

The recent pandemic which arose from China, is caused by a pathogenic virus named "severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2)". Its rapid global expansion has inflicted an extreme public health concern. The attachment of receptor-binding domains (RBD) of the spike proteins (S) to the host cell's membrane, with or without the help of other cellular components such as proteases and especially co-receptors, is required for the first stage of its pathogenesis. In addition to humans, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) is found on a wide range of vertebrate host's cellular surface. SARS-CoV-2 has a broad spectrum of tropism; thus, it can infect a vast range of tissues, organs, and hosts; even though the surface amino acids of the spike protein conflict in the receptor-binding region. Due to the heterogeneous ACE2 distribution and the presence of different domains on the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein for binding, the virus entry into diverse host cell types may depend on the host cells' receptor presentation with or without co-receptors. This review investigates multiple current types of receptor and co-receptor tropisms, with other molecular factors alongside their respective mechanisms, which facilitate the binding and entry of SARS-CoV-2 into the cells, extending the severity of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Understanding the pathogenesis of COVID-19 from this perspective can effectively help prevent this disease and provide more potent treatment strategies, particularly in vulnerable people with various cellular-level susceptibilities.

The role of HPV gene expression and selected cellular MiRNAs in lung cancer development.

BACKGROUND: The high mortality rate of lung cancer can be justified that strong need to explore new aspect of tumor biology. Human papillomavirus (HPV) has been detected as risk factor for the development of lung cancer. The aim of this study was to determine the role of HPV and cellular/miRNAs genes expression in the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and development of lung cancer. METHODS: In this case-control study, 109 lung cancer tissue and 52 controls were included. We analyzed the presence of HPV infection, its genotypes (in positive samples) and the expression of viral genes (E2, E6 and E7). Also, We examined the expression of celluar factors including (a) p53 and retinoblastoma (Rb) (as anti-carcinogenic genes), (b) EMT related genes, (c) selected miRNAs. RESULTS: Our results reported 51.4% and 23.1% of HPV genome in tumor tissues and control tissues samples, respectively. There was a significant association between the HPV positive status and lung cancer (OR = 3.26, 95% C.I = 1.47-7.02, P = 0.001). HPV type 16 was the most prevalent genotype in tissues. The expression of p53, RB, TIMP1, CCNG-1, E-cad and PTPN13 were decreased while MMP-2 and N-cad were increased in HPV-positive tumor/control tissues compared to HPV-negative tissues. Also, among miRNAs, let-7, miR-23, miR-34, miR-125, miR-146 were downregulated and miR-20, miR-424 were upregulated in HPV-positve tissues compared to HPV-negative tissues. CONCLUSION: This study demonstrated that HPV infection and interaction with cellular genes and miRNAs promote EMT which involved in the lung cancer development.

Human papillomavirus and prostate cancer: The role of viral expressed proteins in the inhibition of anoikis and induction of metastasis.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study is to address the role of HPV in prostate cancer (PCa) development through the inducement of resistance to anoikis. METHODS: In this case-control study, prostate tissues and blood samples were collected from 116 individuals, including 72 cases with PCa and 44 non-malignant prostate tissue samples as a control group. The expression level of HPV genes (E2, E6, and E7) and cellular genes including anti-apoptotic mediators (Bcl-2 and survivin), tumor suppressor proteins (Rb and p53), and some mediators involved in anoikis resistance and invasiveness (E-cadherin, N-cadherin, Twist, PTPN13 and SLUG) were evaluated. RESULTS: HPV genome was identified in 36.1% cases and 15.9% control samples, additionally there was found to be a statistic significant association between the presence of HPV and PCa (OR = 1.64, 95% C.I = 0.8-1.8, P-value = 0.023). HPV genotype 16 and 18 were the most prevalent genotype in both in the PCa group and the control group. The expression level of the tumor suppressor proteins (Rb and p53) and anti-apoptotic mediators (Bcl-2 and Survivin) were significantly decreased and increased, respectively, in the HPV-positive specimens compared to the HPV-negative specimens. Furthermore, the mean expression level of N-cadherin, SLUG, and TWIST in the HPV-positive specimens was higher than HPV-negative specimens while the mean expression level of PTPN-13 and E-cadherin genes in the HPV-positive specimens was lower than HPV-negative specimens. CONCLUSION: Our study suggests that HPV infection may be involved in the development of PCa metastases by modulating anoikis resistance related genes.

The role of viral and bacterial infections in the pathogenesis of IPF: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a chronic progressive lung disease. Several risk factors such as smoking, air pollution, inhaled toxins, high body mass index and infectious agents are involved in the pathogenesis of IPF. In the present study, this meta-analysis study investigates the prevalence of viral and bacterial infections in the IPF patients and any possible association between these infections with pathogenesis of IPF. METHODS: The authors carried out this systematic literature review from different reliable databases such as PubMed, ISI Web of Science, Scopus and Google Scholar to December 2020.Keywords used were the following "Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis", "Infection", "Bacterial Infection" and "Viral Infection", alone or combined together with the Boolean operators "OR", "AND" and "NOT" in the Title/Abstract/Keywords field. Pooled proportion and its 95% CI were used to assess the prevalence of viral and bacterial infections in the IPF patients. RESULTS: In this systematic review and meta-analyses, 32 studies were selected based on the exclusion/inclusion criteria. Geographical distribution of included studies was: eight studies in American people, 8; in European people, 15 in Asians, and one in Africans. The pooled prevalence for viral and bacterial infections w ere 53.72% (95% CI 38.1-69.1%) and 31.21% (95% CI 19.9-43.7%), respectively. The highest and lowest prevalence of viral infections was HSV (77.7% 95% CI 38.48-99.32%), EBV (72.02%, 95% CI 44.65-90.79%) and Influenza A (7.3%, 95% CI 2.66-42.45%), respectively. Whereas the highest and lowest prevalence in bacterial infections were related to Streptococcus sp. (99.49%, 95% CI 96.44-99.9%) and Raoultella (1.2%, 95% CI 0.2-3.08%), respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this review were confirmed that the presence of viral and bacterial infections are the risk factors in the pathogenesis of IPF. In further analyses, which have never been shown in the previous studies, we revealed the geographic variations in the association strengths and emphasized other methodological parameters (e.g., detection method). Also, our study supports the hypothesis that respiratory infection could play a key role in the pathogenesis of IP.

Possible role of HPV/EBV coinfection in anoikis resistance and development in prostate cancer.

BACKGROUND: This study aimed to evaluate the possible role of human papillomavirus (HPV) and Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) coinfection as an etiological factor for prostate cancer (PCa) development. METHODS: This case-control study was conducted on 67 patients with PCa and 40 control subjects. The expression levels of cellular and viral factors involved in inflammation, tumor progression, and metastasis were quantified, using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) assay. RESULTS: The EBV/HPV coinfection was reported in 14.9% of patients in the case group and 7.5% of the control subjects. The high-risk types of HPV, that is, HPV 16 and HPV 18, were responsible for 50 and 30% of HPV/EBV-coinfected PCa cases (n = 10), respectively. No significant relationship was observed between PCa and HPV/EBV coinfection (OR = 2.9, 95% CI: 0.18-45.2, P = 0.31). However, the highest percentage of HPV genome integration was found in the HPV/EBV-coinfected PCa group (8/10; 80%). Also, the mean expression levels of inflammatory factors (IL-17, IL-6, TNF-α, NF-κB, VEGF, ROS, and RNS), anti-apoptotic mediators (Bcl-2 and survivin), and anti-anoikis factors (Twist and N-cadherin) were significantly higher in the HPV/EBV-coinfected PCa group, compared to the non-coinfected PCa cases. Nevertheless, the tumor-suppressor proteins (p53 and pRb) and E-cadherin (inhibitor of anoikis resistance) showed significant downregulations in the HPV/EBV-coinfected PCa group, compared to the non-coinfected PCa cases. CONCLUSION: The HPV/EBV coinfection may be an etiological factor for PCa through modulation of cellular behaviors.

Plant-based vaccines and cancer therapy: Where are we now and where are we going?

Therapeutic vaccines are an effective approach in cancer therapy for treating the disease at later stages. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recently approved the first therapeutic cancer vaccine, and further studies are ongoing in clinical trials. These are expected to result in the future development of vaccines with relatively improved efficacy. Several vaccination approaches are being studied in pre-clinical and clinical trials, including the generation of anti-cancer vaccines by plant expression systems.This approach has advantages, such as high safety and low costs, especially for the synthesis of recombinant proteins. Nevertheless, the development of anti-cancer vaccines in plants is faced with some technical obstacles.Herein, we summarize some vaccines that have been used in cancer therapy, with an emphasis on plant-based vaccines.

The role of miR-146a in viral infection.

Cellular microRNAs (miRNAs) were identified as a key player in the posttranscriptional regulation of cellular-genes regulatory pathways. They also emerged as a significant regulator of the immune response. In particular, miR-146a acts as an importance modulator of function and differentiation cells of the innate and adaptive immunity. It has been associated with disorder including cancer and viral infections. Given its significance in the regulation of key cellular processes, it is not surprising which virus infection have found ways to dysregulation of miRNAs. miR-146a has been identified in exosomes (exosomal miR-146a). After the exosomes release from donor cells, they are taken up by the recipient cell and probably the exosomal miR-146a is able to modulate the antiviral response in the recipient cell and result in making them more susceptible to virus infection. In this review, we discuss recent reports regarding miR-146a expression levels, target genes, function, and contributing role in the pathogenesis of the viral infection and provide a clue to develop the new therapeutic and preventive strategies for viral disease in the future.

Evaluation of CCR5-Δ32 mutation among individuals with high risk behaviors, neonates born to HIV-1 infected mothers, HIV-1 infected individuals, and healthy people in an Iranian population.

One of the important genetic factors related to resistance to HIV-1 infection is the presence of the C-C chemokine receptor type 5 delta 32 (CCR5-Δ32) homozygous genotype (Δ32/Δ32). The aim of this study was to evaluate the CCR5-Δ32 mutation among individuals with high-risk behaviors, neonates born to HIV-1-infected mothers in the prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) project, HIV-1-infected individuals, and healthy people. The frequency of the CCR5-Δ32 genotype was assessed in a cross-sectional survey carried out from March 2014 to March 2019 among four different groups of the Iranian population. Genomic DNA was extracted from peripheral blood mononuclear cells of 140 Iranian healthy people, 84 neonates born to HIV-1-infected mothers in the PMTCT project, 71 people with high-risk behaviors, and 76 HIV-1-infected individuals. The polymerase chain reaction method was used for the amplification of the CCR5 gene. The CCR5-Δ32 heterozygous deletion was detected in five (6.6%) HIV-1-infected individuals, four (4.7%) neonates born to HIV-1 positive mothers, two (1.4%) healthy people, and also three (4.2%) people with high-risk behaviors whereas the CCR5-Δ32 homozygous deletion was absent in all the groups (Fisher's exact test, P = .0242). The allele of CCR5-Δ32 homozygous was not detected in the four study groups, and no significant difference was seen in the frequency of the CCR5Δ32 heterozygous allele between HIV seropositive and seronegative individuals. Therefore, it seems that this allele alone cannot explain the natural resistance to HIV-1 infection and probably several mechanisms are responsible for these processes and it should be further investigated.

The assessment of selected MiRNAs profile in HIV, HBV, HCV, HIV/HCV, HIV/HBV Co-infection and elite controllers for determination of biomarker.

BACKGROUND: The emerging relationship between microRNAs (miRNA) and viral-control is a topic of interest in the field of HIV. Host-genome might play an important role in the control of viremia. The aim of this study was to assess the specific miRNA profile that could contribute to the control of HIV replication in Elite Controllers. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The expression level of miRNAs was evaluated in 6 group patients, Elite Controller (EC), HIV, HBV, HCV, HIV-HBV-HIV-HCV, and healthy controls using real-time PCR assays. Also, liver enzymes (ALT and AST) and CD4 T cell count was assessed. RESULTS: After adequate normalization, expression level of miRNAs was determined. The expression level of miR-146 in HIV/HCV co-infected patients was the highest in all groups. The miRNAs expression profile was significantly different in patient groups compared to control and EC. Some miRNA was significantly correlated with viral load and CD4 T cell count. CONCLUSIONS: The involvement of the mentioned miRNAs and correlation of these with viral and cellular parameters can justify the clinical outcome of all patient groups. The differentially expressed miRNA profile in patients suggests that miRNAs can be serve as biomarkers for risk of disease progression and differentiation of infections. Moreover, determining the profiles of miRNAs due to involvement of these in the pathogenesis of infection and manipulating these miRNAs could lead to opening a new gate to infection control.

The association between HPV gene expression, inflammatory agents and cellular genes involved in EMT in lung cancer tissue.

BACKGROUND: Lung cancer is a leading cause of cancer morbidity and mortality worldwide. Several studies have suggested that Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is an important risk factor in the development of lung cancer. In this study, we aim to address the role of HPV in the development of lung cancer mechanistically by examining the induction of inflammation and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) by this virus. METHODS: In this case-control study, tissue samples were collected from 102 cases with lung cancer and 48 controls. We examined the presence of HPV DNA and also the viral genotype in positive samples. We also examined the expression of viral genes (E2, E6 and E7), anti-carcinogenic genes (p53, retinoblastoma (RB)), and inflammatory cytokines in HPV positive cases. RESULTS: HPV DNA was detected in 52.9% (54/102) of the case samples and in 25% (12/48) of controls. A significant association was observed between a HPV positive status and lung cancer (OR = 3.37, 95% C.I = 1.58-7.22, P = 0.001). The most prevalent virus genotype in the patients was type 16 (38.8%). The expression of p53 and RB were decreased while and inflammatory cytokines were increased in HPV-positive lung cancer and HPV-positive control tissues compared to HPV-negative lung cancer and HPV-negative control tissues. Also, the expression level of E-cad and PTPN-13 genes were decreased in HPV- positive samples while the expression level of SLUG, TWIST and N-cad was increased in HPV-positive samples compared to negative samples. CONCLUSION: Our study suggests that HPV infection drives the induction of inflammation and EMT which may promote in the development of lung cancer.

microRNAs: New prognostic, diagnostic, and therapeutic biomarkers in cervical cancer.

Cervical cancer is as a kind of cancer beginning from the cervix. Given that cervical cancer could be observed in women who infected with papillomavirus, regular oral contraceptives, and multiple pregnancies. Early detection of cervical cancer is one of the most important aspects of the therapy of this malignancy. Despite several efforts, finding and developing new biomarkers for cervical cancer diagnosis are required. Among various prognostic, diagnostic, and therapeutic biomarkers, miRNA have been emerged as powerful biomarkers for detection, treatment, and monitoring of response to therapy in cervical cancer. Here, we summarized various miRNAs as an employable platform for prognostic, diagnostic, and therapeutic biomarkers in the treatment of cervical cancer.

Breast cancer diagnosis: Imaging techniques and biochemical markers.

Breast cancer is a complex disease which is found as the second cause of cancer-associated death among women. Accumulating of evidence indicated that various factors (i.e., gentical and envirmental factors) could be associated with initiation and progression of breast cancer. Diagnosis of breast cancer patients in early stages is one of important aspects of breast cancer treatment. Among of various diagnosis platforms, imaging techniques are main diagnosis approaches which could provide valuable data on patients with breast cancer. It has been showed that various imaging techniques such as mammography, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), positron-emission tomography (PET), Computed tomography (CT), and single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) could be used for diagnosis and monitoring patients with breast cancer in various stages. Beside, imaging techniques, utilization of biochemical biomarkers such as proteins, DNAs, mRNAs, and microRNAs could be employed as new diagnosis and therapeutic tools for patients with breast cancer. Here, we summarized various imaging techniques and biochemical biomarkers could be utilized as diagnosis of patients with breast cancer. Moreover, we highlighted microRNAs and exosomes as new diagnosis and therapeutic biomarkers for monitoring patients with breast cancer.

MicroRNAs in retinoblastoma: Potential diagnostic and therapeutic biomarkers.

Retinoblastoma (Rb) is known as one of important childhood malignancies which due to inactivation of the RB gene (tumor suppressor gene in various patients). The early detection of Rb could provide better treatment for Rb patients. Imaging techniques (e.g., MRI and CT) are known as one of effective diagnosis approaches for detection of patients with Rb. It has been shown that utilization of imaging techniques is associated with some limitations. Hence, identification of new diagnosis approaches might provide a better treatment for Rb patients. Identification of new biomarkers could contribute to better understanding of pathogenesis events involved in Rb and provide new insights into design better treatment approaches for these patients. Among the various biomarkers, microRNAs (miRNAs) have emerged as attractive tools for Rb detection. miRNAs are one classes of small non-coding RNAs which could anticipate in a variety of biological process via targeting sequence of cellular and molecular pathways. Deregulations of these molecules are associated with cancerous condition. Multiple lines of evidence indicated that deregulation of various miRNAs involved in various stages of Rb. Here, we summarized a variety of tissue-specific and circulating miRNAs involved in Rb pathogenesis which could be used as diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic biomarkers in Rb patients.

MicroRNAs and exosomes in depression: Potential diagnostic biomarkers.

Depression is known as one of important psychiatric disorders which could be associated with disability among various populations. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th edition (DSM-IV) and international statistical classification of diseases and related health problems (ICD-10) could be used as subjective diagnostic schemes for identification of mental disorders such as depression. Utilization of subjective diagnostic schemes are associated with limitations. Hence, it seems that employing of new diagnosis platforms is required. Multiple lines of evidence indicated that measurement of several biomarkers could be useful for detection patients with depression. Among of various types of biomarkers, microRNAs (miRNAs) have been emerged as powerful tools for diagnosis patients with depression. MiRNAs are small non-coding RNAs which act as epigenetic regulators. It has been showed that these molecules have critical roles in pathogenesis of many diseases such as depression. These molecules exert their effects via targeting a variety of cellular and molecular pathways involved in initiation and progression of depression. Hence, miRNAs could be used as diagnostic and therapeutic biomarkers in patients with depression. Besides miRNAs, exosomes as nano- carriers could have been emerged as diagnostic biomarkers in several diseases such as depression. These vesicles are able to carry several cargos such as DNAs, proteins, mRNAs, and miRNAs to recipient cells. Here, we summarized several miRNAs involved in pathogenesis and response to treatment of depression which could be used as diagnostic biomarkers. Moreover, we highlighted exosomes as new diagnostic biomarkers for patients with depression.