EVALUATION OF PASSIVE TRANSFER IN NINE SPECIES OF CERVIDAE.

The reliability of packed cell volumes (PCV), total solids (TS), blood glucose (BG), γ-glutamyl transferase (GGT), and glutaraldehyde test in determining passive transfer of colostral immunoglobulins was investigated in nine species of cervids: axis deer (Axis axis), hog deer (Axis porcinus), sika deer (Cervus nippon), tufted deer (Elaphodus cephalophus), Père David's deer (Elaphurus davidianus), pudu (Pudu puda), sambar deer (Rusa unicolor), barasinga deer (Rucervus duvaucelli), and Eld's deer (Rucervus eldii). Individually the parameters evaluated were significant though imperfect predictors of passive transfer status in cervids. Interpreted collectively as a panel along with neonate condition, these tests were clinically helpful in diagnosing failure of passive transfer (FPT). Collectively interpreting test results as a panel along with clinical assessment of the animal is recommended. Some species-specific variations in TS, GGT, and glutaraldehyde test results were identified.

DIFFUSIBLE IODINE-BASED CONTRAST-ENHANCED COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY AS A NECROPSY AID: A CASE REPORT EVALUATING RESPIRATORY DISEASE IN MACROCEPHALON MALEO.

This study describes the novel use of diffusible iodine-based contrast-enhanced computed tomography (diceCT) as a digital necropsy aid. DiceCT was used postmortem to evaluate the cause of progressive respiratory disease in a juvenile maleo (Macrocephalon maleo). The technique facilitated soft-tissue contrast and a three-dimensional investigation of sinus and choanal anatomy as a means to identify normal and pathologic morphologies. Results showed right-sided narial occlusion by mucoid debris, along with left-sided choanal stenosis caused by osteomyelitis and reactive bone formation. The high spatial resolution afforded by diceCT enabled targeted histology and quantification of the clinical impact of pathologies, which contributed to an effective 60% loss in nasal airway aperture for this individual. This study demonstrates how adding diceCT to traditional necropsy can proffer additional understanding of an individual's pathology, and the resulting data can enhance research programs in vertebrate anatomy, evolution, and health.

PHARMACOKINETICS OF A SINGLE ORAL DOSE OF PONAZURIL IN THE INDIAN PEAFOWL (PAVO CRISTATUS).

Ponazuril, a novel coccidiocidal triazinetrione, has shown promise in addressing apicomplexan diseases in mammals and birds. This study describes the pharmacokinetics of ponazuril in healthy adult Indian peafowl (Pavo cristatus) following a single oral dose administered at two different dosages. Peafowl (four males and four females) were administered compounded ponazuril at 20 or 40 mg/kg orally in a double crossover design, with a 2-wk washout period. Blood was collected from each bird at 2, 4, 8, 24, 48, 72, 96, and 120 h after administration for plasma concentration of ponazuril using high-pressure liquid chromatography. Fecals were evaluated for coccidial shedding for 3 consecutive d prior to the ponazuril trial, 1 wk after the first dose of ponazuril, and 1 wk after the second dose of the trial. After the first trial, one peafowl administered 20 mg/kg ponazuril was shedding coccidia, but no coccidia were detected by the end of the second trial. Ponazuril reached peak concentrations (Tmax) at 21.38 h + 5.25 and 22.04 h + 7.39, and peak concentration (Cmax) were 11.82 µg/ml + 3.01 and 18.42 µg/ml + 4.13, for 20 and 40 mg/kg doses, respectively. Ponazuril was detected at 120 h with a concentration of 9.48 µg/ml + 2.59 and 12.25 µg/ml + 2.89 and a half-life of 219.4 + 58.7 h and 186.7 + 58.7 h, for and 40 mg/kg doses, respectively. Ponazuril in peafowl was well absorbed orally, plasma concentrations increased with dose, and elimination was slower than current dosages for birds would suggest. No obvious adverse effects were observed at either dosage.

SARCOCYSTOSIS IN A CAPTIVE FLOCK OF THICK-BILLED PARROTS (RHYNCHOPSITTA PACHYRHYNCHA) FROM 2005 TO 2016: MORBIDITY, MORTALITY, DIAGNOSTICS, AND MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES.

Sarcocystosis was diagnosed in a captive flock of thick-billed parrots (Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha) at the Wildlife Conservation Society's Queens Zoo. Since the index case in 2005, 45% of mortalities in birds over 30 days of age were due to sarcocystosis. Sarcocystis falcatula was repeatedly identified as the causative agent. The disease predominantly affected younger adult parrots. Administration of antiparasitic medications prior to development of respiratory signs prolonged life in infected birds, but disease was fatal until utilization of a three-drug combination (pyrimethamine, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, and ponazuril). This protocol may require in excess of 6 mo of therapy to achieve clinical resolution of active disease. Plasma creatine kinase activity was found to be the most useful test in diagnosing infection and monitoring response to therapy. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for apicomplexan organisms on antemortem whole blood, blood smears, or dried blood spots helped confirm suspected cases, but due to the poor sensitivity was sometimes misleading when assessing response to therapy or resolution of clinical disease. Preventive measures, focusing on exclusion and removal of Virginia opossums (Didelphis virginiana) from zoo grounds failed to curtail the occurrence of sarcocystosis in the flock. Other preventative steps, such as modification of feeding stations to exclude potential arthropod paratenic hosts and prophylaxis trials with diclazuril, appeared to successfully mitigate new infections. Given the diagnostic and therapeutic challenges, prevention of exposure to S. falcatula is essential to ex-situ conservation efforts for thick-billed parrots.

DIAGNOSIS AND MANAGEMENT OF MYCOBACTERIOSIS IN A COLONY OF LITTLE PENGUINS (EUDYPTULA MINOR).

A group of zoo-housed little penguins (Eudyptula minor) was diagnosed with mycobacteriosis. While undergoing multidetector computed tomography (MDCT) imaging for an unrelated research project, pulmonary lesions were detected in multiple individuals. In general, birds appeared healthy and free of outward signs of disease. After the loss of three individuals, polyclonal mycobacterial disease due to Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare complex was confirmed. Surviving birds were treated with rifampin (45 mg/kg), ethambutol (30 mg/kg), clarithromycin (10 mg/kg), and enrofloxacin (30 mg/kg) compounded into a single capsule administered once a day in food. After 3 mo of therapy, MDCT imaging documented a decrease in nodule size and number in all remaining birds, with further improvement documented after 13 mo of treatment. MDCT imaging was invaluable for diagnosing disease, documenting disease progression over time, and assessing response to therapy. Early initiation of therapy before the development of outward signs of disease led to resolution of mycobacterial pulmonary lesions in multiple penguins. Mycobacterial disease in this group of little penguins, as well as previously published reports, suggests that the species is at increased risk for developing mycobacteriosis.

STANDING COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY IN NONANESTHETIZED LITTLE PENGUINS (EUDYPTULA MINOR) TO ASSESS RESPIRATORY SYSTEM ANATOMY AND MONITOR DISEASE.

Multidetector computed tomography (MDCT) scans were performed in clinically healthy, nonanesthetized, standing little penguins (Eudyptula minor) to determine reference ranges for air-sac and lung volumes, as well as lung density. Five of 15 clinically healthy birds were diagnosed with pulmonary granulomas on initial MDCT scans. Granulomas were not readily apparent on radiographs, even in cases where the entire normal pulmonary parenchymal architecture was effaced on the MDCT scan. Serial MDCT scans after antifungal and antimycobacterial therapies demonstrated a response to treatment. MDCT scanning in nonanesthetized little penguins proved to be a well-tolerated, non-invasive imaging modality for respiratory diseases that are otherwise difficult to diagnose, including aspergillosis and mycobacteriosis.

TREATMENT OF CRYPTOSPORIDIUM SERPENTIS INFECTION IN A KING COBRA ( OPHIOPHAGUS HANNAH) WITH PAROMOMYCIN.

Feces collected from a wild-caught, young adult king cobra ( Ophiophagus hannah) were repeatedly positive for Cryptosporidium on both direct immunofluorescent antibody (DFA) and polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and sequencing identified the organism as Cryptosporidium serpentis. Infection was subclinical, as the snake was in good body condition and active, and readily consumed dead rats that were scented with snake skin. A course of paromomycin, inserted in feeder rats, was initiated at 360 mg/kg, orally, twice weekly for 6 wk. Feces collected at the end of treatment were negative for Cryptosporidium on PCR, as were feces collected 3 wk, 6 mo, 12 mo, and 18 mo later. At higher dosages, paromomycin may prove useful and may be curative for early gastric and intestinal cryptosporidiosis in squamate reptiles.

Molecular characterization of reptile pathogens currently known as members of the chrysosporium anamorph of Nannizziopsis vriesii complex and relationship with some human-associated isolates.

In recent years, the Chrysosporium anamorph of Nannizziopsis vriesii (CANV), Chrysosporium guarroi, Chrysosporium ophiodiicola, and Chrysosporium species have been reported as the causes of dermal or deep lesions in reptiles. These infections are contagious and often fatal and affect both captive and wild animals. Forty-nine CANV isolates from reptiles and six isolates from human sources were compared with N. vriesii based on their cultural characteristics and DNA sequence data. Analyses of the sequences of the internal transcribed spacer and small subunit of the nuclear ribosomal gene revealed that the reptile pathogens and human isolates belong in well-supported clades corresponding to three lineages that are distinct from all other taxa within the family Onygenaceae of the order Onygenales. One lineage represents the genus Nannizziopsis and comprises N. vriesii, N. guarroi, and six additional species encompassing isolates from chameleons and geckos, crocodiles, agamid and iguanid lizards, and humans. Two other lineages comprise the genus Ophidiomyces, with the species Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola occurring only in snakes, and Paranannizziopsis gen. nov., with three new species infecting squamates and tuataras. The newly described species are Nannizziopsis dermatitidis, Nannizziopsis crocodili, Nannizziopsis barbata, Nannizziopsis infrequens, Nannizziopsis hominis, Nannizziopsis obscura, Paranannizziopsis australasiensis, Paranannizziopsis californiensis, and Paranannizziopsis crustacea. Chrysosporium longisporum has been reclassified as Paranannizziopsis longispora. N. guarroi causes yellow fungus disease, a common infection in bearded dragons and green iguanas, and O. ophiodiicola is an emerging pathogen of captive and wild snakes. Human-associated species were not recovered from reptiles, and reptile-associated species were recovered only from reptiles, thereby mitigating concerns related to zoonosis.

An overview of acariasis in captive invertebrates.

Mites are commonly found on captive invertebrates, yet little is known of their impact on the health of the host. The nature of the association between mites and invertebrate host ranges from harmonic or phoretic to parasitic and, rarely, parasitoid. The assumption is often made for mites seen on select invertebrate hosts that they are innocuous, yet hard data to support such assumptions is usually lacking. The decision to treat or disregard acariasis in invertebrates should be based on identification of the mites and determination of the mite-host relationship, whether through direct observations of the mite on the host or through necropsies of infested hosts.

Surgical stabilization of traumatic elbow joint luxation and proximal ulnar fracture in a silvery langur (Trachypithecus cristatus).

CASE DESCRIPTION: A 3-year-old 5-kg sexually intact female silvery langur housed in a single-species group at a zoological institution was presented because of acute trauma to the left forelimb. CLINICAL FINDINGS: Radiography of the left forelimb revealed a type II Monteggia fracture (proximal ulnar fracture with cranial displacement and caudal luxation of the radial head). During surgery, disruption of the annular ligament and rupture of the lateral collateral ligament were noted. TREATMENT AND OUTCOME: The langur underwent open reduction and internal fixation of the ulnar fracture and placement of a radioulnar positional screw, a prosthetic lateral collateral ligament, and a temporary hinged type 1A external skeletal fixator. The langur was returned to group housing, underwent behavioral training, and was periodically anesthetized for physical therapy sessions to improve range of motion of the left elbow joint. The external skeletal fixator was removed 4 weeks after surgery, and the radioulnar positional screw was removed 6 weeks after surgery. Three months after surgery, the range of motion of the langur's left elbow joint was considered normal, and the animal returned to normal activity. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: For the captive silvery langur of the present report, surgical stabilization and postoperative management of a type II Monteggia fracture of the left forelimb were successful with recovery of elbow joint function. These techniques may be applied to other captive nonhuman primates, including those that brachiate or are members of social species that must be housed with conspecifics in the postoperative period to maintain group dynamics.

Cerebral xanthomatosis in three green water dragons (Physignathus cocincinus).

Cerebral xanthomatosis was diagnosed in three female green water dragons (Physignathus cocincinus), all of which presented with progressive neurologic signs. No antemortem evidence for xanthomatosis was identified, but on postmortem examination cholesterol granulomas, composed of cholesterol clefts surrounded by macrophages and multinucleated giant cells, were found in the forebrain of each animal and were associated with significant displacement and pressure on the adjacent brain. Although the cause of xanthomatosis in these animals is unknown, nutrition and trauma may be involved in the pathogenesis of this condition. Cerebrum, cholesterol, green water dragon, Physignathus cocincinus, xanthoma.

Mermithid nematode infection in a colony of blue-winged grasshoppers (Tropidacris collaris).

A die-off occurred in a captive colony of blue-winged grasshoppers (Tropidacris collaris) at the Toronto Zoo. One fourth of the colony died within a year due to infection with worms initially mistaken for nematomorphs but later identified as nematodes belonging to the Mermithidae, genus Mermis. Mortality persisted and the grasshopper population dwindled over the following years. Mermithid larvae developed in the hemocoel of the insects until they eventually emerged from a hollowed-out exoskeleton. Circumstantial evidence suggests that the parasites were introduced with raspberry browse that was grown on site and contaminated with mermithid eggs.

Microlichus americanus acariasis in saffron finches (Sicalis flaveola) with dermatitis and feather loss.

Over a 5-year period, 13 saffron finches (Sicalis flaveola) housed in mixed aviaries at the Bronx Zoo (Bronx, New York) were examined with feather loss and dermatitis, primarily affecting the nape, neck, and dorsum. Feather loss, hyperkeratosis, epidermal hyperplasia, and mixed granulocytic and mononuclear inflammation were identified in biopsies from live birds and tissue sections from postmortem specimens. In 10 of 13 cases, sections of arthropod parasites were seen histologically within feather follicles and along the surface of affected skin. Based on morphological characteristics, mites recovered from samples of formalin-fixed skin in 4 birds were identified as Microlichus americanus, an epidermoptid mite infrequently reported from wild birds and hippoboscid flies. Gross and histological lesions strongly implicate M. americanus as the cause of dermatitis affecting practically all saffron finches in the collection.

Thelebolus microsporus mycelial mats in the trachea of wild brown skua (Catharacta antarctica lonnbergi) and South Polar skua (C. maccormicki) carcasses.

Sixteen brown skuas (Catharacta antarctica lonnbergi) and seven South Polar skuas (C. maccormicki) were found dead near Boekella Lake, Hope Bay, Antarctica, in February 1997. Postmortem examination revealed conspicuous caseous, deep yellow fungal/mycelial mats or cores in the trachea of nine of 19 carcasses that were examined. These mycelial cores, highly suggestive of aspergillomas, completely occluded the tracheal lumen in four of these nine carcasses. Thelebolus microsporus, a psychrophilic ascomycetous fungus commonly isolated from skua dung and skua nesting material, was isolated in pure culture from these tracheal plugs. Awareness of pseudolesions resulting from Thelebolus microsporus profuse postmortem growth in the trachea of dead skuas will minimize potential confusion with aspergillosis when investigating causes of epornithics in Antarctica.

Fungal diseases of amphibians: an overview.

Clinicians should be familiar with the most common fungal diseases of amphibians. Because lesions in mycotic diseases are nonspecific, a diagnosis cannot be established solely on the basis of clinical presentation. Bacterial, mycobacterial, chlamydial, and parasitic infections, and toxic or environmental conditions may mimic mycotic disease to various extents. Furthermore, mycoses may be masked by overwhelming secondary bacterial infection and therefore remain undiagnosed. Skin scrapings, impression smears, biopsies, and fungal culture are all useful tools in confirming or dismissing a diagnosis of mycosis. Whenever possible, an effort should be made to forward samples and biopsies for culture to appropriate laboratories. Providing the laboratory with a tentative etiologic diagnosis may allow for specific selection of more specific agars and culture conditions and maximize the chances of recovering the fungus from lesions. Identification to species level should also be encouraged, if progress is to be made in the understanding of mycoses in amphibians. The morphology of an isolate should be consistent with the microscopic features of the fungus in histological sections of affected tissues, if it is to be firmly incriminated as the cause of disease. A complete necropsy should be conducted on animals that die or are found dead, and, ideally, isolates from confirmed cases of fungal infection should be deposited in scientific collections, so that they are available for later studies. In addendum, readers should be aware that there is recent evidence to suggest that at least some published cases of amphibian basidiobolomycosis were in fact cases of chytridiomycosis [38], and therefore the validity of basidiobolomycosis as a disease entity in amphibians may be revisited in the years to come.

Reptile geriatrics.

Although basic notions, such as life expectancy, and thus what constitutes old age, remain to be determined in the vast majority of reptile species, there is a tendency at least for captive reptiles to live longer now than in the past. Clinicians are expected to recognize signs of senescence or old age in reptile patients, to acquire a heightened index of suspicion for diseases likely to affect older individuals of a given species or taxon, and to provide sound advice on geriatric care of such patients. Reptiles are stoic and show few signs of aging, but subtle changes in behavior, mobility, reproduction, weight, or appetite may all signal the onset of senescence to the vigilant caregiver. Serial, for example, yearly or biannual physical examination, blood sampling, and imaging initiated at maturity or earlier are probably the most powerful tools in diagnosing, monitoring, and managing geriatric issues.

Deep fungal dermatitis in three inland bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps) caused by the Chrysosporium anamorph of Nannizziopsis vriesii.

The Chrysosporium anamorph of Nannizziopsis vriesii (CANV), a keratinophilic fungus that naturally and experimentally causes severe and often fatal dermatitis in multiple reptile species, was isolated in pure culture from skin samples of three inland bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps) with deep granulomatous dermatomycosis. The first animal presented with a focal maxillary swelling involving the skin and gingiva. This lizard died while undergoing itraconazole and topical miconazole therapy. The second presented with focally extensive discoloration and thickening of the skin of the ventrum and was euthanized after 10 weeks of itraconazole therapy. A third lizard presented with hyperkeratotic exudative dermatitis on a markedly swollen forelimb. Amputation and itraconazole therapy resulted in a clinical cure. Histopathology of tissue biopsies in all cases demonstrated granulomatous dermatitis with intralesional hyphae morphologically consistent with those produced by the CANV. The second lizard also had granulomatous hepatitis with intralesional hyphae. Evidence in this report suggests that the CANV is the etiologic agent of an emerging condition in captive bearded dragons that has been called 'yellow fungus disease'.

Leukocyte changes in diseased non-domestic birds.

Abnormal complete blood counts on four birds of prey, three waterfowl, and one pigeon are reported. Heterophil counts exceeding 100 X 10(9)/L were seen in each group of birds, and were associated with chronic infections. Heteropenia with left shift and toxicity was an indicator of poor prognosis, and occurred with terminal disseminated mycotic infection in birds of prey, and disseminated bacterial infection in the other avian patients. Morphologic criteria indicating immaturity and toxicity appeared more important for determining outcome than the magnitude of the heterophilia, and high heterophil counts did not preclude overwhelming fatal infection. Monocytosis occurred in only one bird of prey with a mycotic infection. Criteria similar to those applied to mammalian leukograms appear to correlate with prognosis in avian patients.