Detection of DNA and poly-l-lysine using CVD graphene-channel FET biosensors.

A graphene channel field-effect biosensor is demonstrated for detecting the binding of double-stranded DNA and poly-l-lysine. Sensors consist of chemical vapor deposition graphene transferred using a clean, etchant-free transfer method. The presence of DNA and poly-l-lysine are detected by the conductance change of the graphene transistor. A readily measured shift in the Dirac voltage (the voltage at which the graphene's resistance peaks) is observed after the graphene channel is exposed to solutions containing DNA or poly-l-lysine. The 'Dirac voltage shift' is attributed to the binding/unbinding of charged molecules on the graphene surface. The polarity of the response changes to positive direction with poly-l-lysine and negative direction with DNA. This response results in detection limits of 8 pM for 48.5 kbp DNA and 11 pM for poly-l-lysine. The biosensors are easy to fabricate, reusable and are promising as sensors of a wide variety of charged biomolecules.

Stamp transferred suspended graphene mechanical resonators for radio frequency electrical readout.

We present a simple micromanipulation technique to transfer suspended graphene flakes onto any substrate and to assemble them with small localized gates into mechanical resonators. The mechanical motion of the graphene is detected using an electrical, radio frequency (RF) reflection readout scheme where the time-varying graphene capacitor reflects a RF carrier at f = 5-6 GHz producing modulation sidebands at f ± f(m). A mechanical resonance frequency up to f(m) = 178 MHz is demonstrated. We find both hardening/softening Duffing effects on different samples and obtain a critical amplitude of ~40 pm for the onset of nonlinearity in graphene mechanical resonators. Measurements of the quality factor of the mechanical resonance as a function of dc bias voltage V(dc) indicates that dissipation due to motion-induced displacement currents in graphene electrode is important at high frequencies and large V(dc).

Supercooling of the A phase of 3He.

Because of the extreme purity, lack of disorder, and complex order parameter, the first-order superfluid 3He A-B transition is the leading model system for first order transitions in the early universe. Here we report on the path dependence of the supercooling of the A phase over a wide range of pressures below 29.3 bar at nearly zero magnetic field. The A phase can be cooled significantly below the thermodynamic A-B transition temperature. While the extent of supercooling is highly reproducible, it depends strongly upon the cooling trajectory: The metastability of the A phase is enhanced by transiting through regions where the A phase is more stable. We provide evidence that some of the additional supercooling is due to the elimination of B phase nucleation precursors formed upon passage through the superfluid transition. A greater understanding of the physics is essential before 3He can be exploited to model transitions in the early universe.

High-Q nanomechanics via destructive interference of elastic waves.

Mechanical dissipation poses a ubiquitous challenge to the performance of nanomechanical devices. Here we analyze the support-induced dissipation of high-stress nanomechanical resonators. We develop a model for this loss mechanism and test it on Si(3)N(4) membranes with circular and square geometries. The measured Q values of different harmonics present a nonmonotonic behavior which is successfully explained. For azimuthal harmonics of the circular geometry we predict that destructive interference of the radiated waves leads to an exponential suppression of the clamping loss in the harmonic index. Our model can also be applied to graphene drums under high tension.

Quantum transport in mesoscopic 3He films: experimental study of the interference of bulk and boundary scattering.

We discuss the mass transport of a degenerate Fermi liquid ^{3}He film over a rough surface, and the film momentum relaxation time, in the framework of theoretical predictions. In the mesoscopic regime, the anomalous temperature dependence of the relaxation time is explained in terms of the interference between elastic boundary scattering and inelastic quasiparticle-quasiparticle scattering within the film. We exploit a quasiclassical treatment of quantum size effects in the film in which the surface roughness, whose power spectrum is experimentally determined, is mapped into an effective disorder potential within a film of uniform thickness. Confirmation is provided by the introduction of elastic scattering centers within the film. The improved understanding of surface roughness scattering may impact on enhancing the conductivity in thin metallic films.

Modification of the 3He phase diagram by anisotropic disorder.

Motivated by the recent prediction that uniaxially compressed aerogel can stabilize the anisotropic A phase over the isotropic B phase, we measure the pressure dependent superfluid fraction of (3)He entrained in 10% axially compressed, 98% porous aerogel. We observe that a broad region of the temperature-pressure phase diagram is occupied by the metastable A phase. The reappearance of the A phase on warming from the B phase, before superfluidity is extinguished at T(c), is in contrast to its absence in uncompressed aerogel. The phase diagram is modified from that of pure (3)He, with the disappearance of the polycritical point (PCP) and the appearance of a region of A phase extending below the PCP of bulk (3)He, even in zero applied magnetic field. The expected alignment of the A phase texture by compression is not observed.

Fragility of surface states in topological superfluid 3He.

Superfluid 3He, with unconventional spin-triplet p-wave pairing, provides a model system for topological superconductors, which have attracted significant interest through potential applications in topologically protected quantum computing. In topological insulators and quantum Hall systems, the surface/edge states, arising from bulk-surface correspondence and the momentum space topology of the band structure, are robust. Here we demonstrate that in topological superfluids and superconductors the surface Andreev bound states, which depend on the momentum space topology of the emergent order parameter, are fragile with respect to the details of surface scattering. We confine superfluid 3He within a cavity of height D comparable to the Cooper pair diameter ξ0. We precisely determine the superfluid transition temperature Tc and the suppression of the superfluid energy gap, for different scattering conditions tuned in situ, and compare to the predictions of quasiclassical theory. We discover that surface magnetic scattering leads to unexpectedly large suppression of Tc, corresponding to an increased density of low energy bound states.

Real-time synchronous imaging of electromechanical resonator mode and equilibrium profiles.

Interferometric imaging of normal mode dynamics in electromechanical resonators, oscillating in the rf regime, is demonstrated by synchronous imaging with a pulsed nanosecond laser. Profiles of mechanical modes in suspended thin film structures and their equilibrium profiles are measured through all-optical Fabry-Perot reflectance fits to the temporal traces. As a proof of principle, the mode patterns of a microdrum silicon resonator are visualized, and the extracted vibration modes and equilibrium profile show good agreement with numerical estimations.

Thermal transport of helium-3 in a strongly confining channel.

The investigation of transport properties in normal liquid helium-3 and its topological superfluid phases provides insights into related phenomena in electron fluids, topological materials, and putative topological superconductors. It relies on the measurement of mass, heat, and spin currents, due to system neutrality. Of particular interest is transport in strongly confining channels of height approaching the superfluid coherence length, to enhance the relative contribution of surface excitations, and suppress hydrodynamic counterflow. Here we report on the thermal conduction of helium-3 in a 1.1 µm high channel. In the normal state we observe a diffusive thermal conductivity that is approximately temperature independent, consistent with interference of bulk and boundary scattering. In the superfluid, the thermal conductivity is only weakly temperature dependent, requiring detailed theoretical analysis. An anomalous thermal response is detected in the superfluid which we propose arises from the emission of a flux of surface excitations from the channel.

Fabrication of microfluidic cavities using Si-to-glass anodic bonding.

We demonstrate the fabrication of ∼1.08 µm deep microfluidic cavities with characteristic size as large as 7 mm × 11 mm or 11 mm diameter, using a silicon-glass anodic bonding technique that does not require posts to act as separators to define cavity height. Since the phase diagram of 3He is significantly altered under confinement, posts might act as pinning centers for phase boundaries. The previous generation of cavities relied on full wafer-bonding which is more prone to failure and requires dicing post-bonding, whereas these cavities are made by bonding a pre-cut piece of Hoya SD-2 glass to a patterned piece of silicon in which the cavity is defined by etching. Anodic bonding was carried out at 425 °C with 200 V, and we observe that pressurizing the cavity to failure (>30 bars pressure) results in glass breaking, rather than the glass-silicon bond separation. In this article, we discuss the detailed fabrication of the cavity, its edges, and details of the junction between the coin silver fill line and the silicon base of the cavity that enables a low internal-friction joint. This feature is important for mass coupling torsional oscillator experimental assays of the superfluid inertial contribution where a high quality factor (Q) improves frequency resolution. The surface preparation that yields well-characterized smooth surfaces to eliminate pinning sites, the use of transparent glass as a cover permitting optical access, low temperature capability, and attachment of pressure-capable ports for fluid access may be features that are important in other applications.

The A-B transition in superfluid helium-3 under confinement in a thin slab geometry.

The influence of confinement on the phases of superfluid helium-3 is studied using the torsional pendulum method. We focus on the transition between the A and B phases, where the A phase is stabilized by confinement and a spatially modulated stripe phase is predicted at the A-B phase boundary. Here we discuss results from superfluid helium-3 contained in a single 1.08-µm-thick nanofluidic cavity incorporated into a high-precision torsion pendulum, and map the phase diagram between 0.1 and 5.6 bar. We observe only small supercooling of the A phase, in comparison to bulk or when confined in aerogel, with evidence for a non-monotonic pressure dependence. This suggests that an intrinsic B-phase nucleation mechanism operates under confinement. Both the phase diagram and the relative superfluid fraction of the A and B phases, show that strong coupling is present at all pressures, with implications for the stability of the stripe phase.

Tunable phonon-cavity coupling in graphene membranes.

A major achievement of the past decade has been the realization of macroscopic quantum systems by exploiting the interactions between optical cavities and mechanical resonators. In these systems, phonons are coherently annihilated or created in exchange for photons. Similar phenomena have recently been observed through phonon-cavity coupling-energy exchange between the modes of a single system mediated by intrinsic material nonlinearity. This has so far been demonstrated primarily for bulk crystalline, high-quality-factor (Q > 10(5)) mechanical systems operated at cryogenic temperatures. Here, we propose graphene as an ideal candidate for the study of such nonlinear mechanics. The large elastic modulus of this material and capability for spatial symmetry breaking via electrostatic forces is expected to generate a wealth of nonlinear phenomena, including tunable intermodal coupling. We have fabricated circular graphene membranes and report strong phonon-cavity effects at room temperature, despite the modest Q factor (∼100) of this system. We observe both amplification into parametric instability (mechanical lasing) and the cooling of Brownian motion in the fundamental mode through excitation of cavity sidebands. Furthermore, we characterize the quenching of these parametric effects at large vibrational amplitudes, offering a window on the all-mechanical analogue of cavity optomechanics, where the observation of such effects has proven elusive.

Observation of a new superfluid phase for 3He embedded in nematically ordered aerogel.

In bulk superfluid 3He at zero magnetic field, two phases emerge with the B-phase stable everywhere except at high pressures and temperatures, where the A-phase is favoured. Aerogels with nanostructure smaller than the superfluid coherence length are the only means to introduce disorder into the superfluid. Here we use a torsion pendulum to study 3He confined in an extremely anisotropic, nematically ordered aerogel consisting of ∼10 nm-thick alumina strands, spaced by ∼100 nm, and aligned parallel to the pendulum axis. Kinks in the development of the superfluid fraction (at various pressures) as the temperature is varied correspond to phase transitions. Two such transitions are seen in the superfluid state, and we identify the superfluid phase closest to Tc at low pressure as the polar state, a phase that is not seen in bulk 3He.

Transfer printing of CVD graphene FETs on patterned substrates.

We describe a simple and scalable method for the transfer of CVD graphene for the fabrication of field effect transistors. This is a dry process that uses a modified RCA-cleaning step to improve the surface quality. In contrast to conventional fabrication routes where lithographic steps are performed after the transfer, here graphene is transferred to a pre-patterned substrate. The resulting FET devices display nearly zero Dirac voltage, and the contact resistance between the graphene and metal contacts is on the order of 910 ± 340 Ω µm. This approach enables formation of conducting graphene channel lengths up to one millimeter. The resist-free transfer process provides a clean graphene surface that is promising for use in high sensitivity graphene FET biosensors.

Phase diagram of the topological superfluid 3He confined in a nanoscale slab geometry.

The superfluid phases of helium-3 ((3)He) are predicted to be strongly influenced by mesoscopic confinement. However, mapping out the phase diagram in a confined geometry has been experimentally challenging. We confined a sample of (3)He within a nanofluidic cavity of precisely defined geometry, cooled it, and fingerprinted the order parameter using a sensitive nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometer. The measured suppression of the p-wave order parameter arising from surface scattering was consistent with the predictions of quasi-classical theory. Controlled confinement of nanofluidic samples provides a new laboratory for the study of topological superfluids and their surface- and edge-bound excitations.

Anodically bonded submicron microfluidic chambers.

We demonstrate the use of anodic bonding to fabricate cells with characteristic size as large as 7 x 10 mm(2), with height of approximately 640 nm, and without any internal support structure. The cells were fabricated from Hoya SD-2 glass and silicon wafers, each with 3 mm thickness to maintain dimensional stability under internal pressure. Bonding was carried out at 350 degrees C and 450 V with an electrode structure that excluded the electric field from the open region. We detail fabrication and characterization steps and also discuss the design of the fill line for access to the cavity.

Stress and silicon nitride: a crack in the universal dissipation of glasses.

High-stress silicon nitride microresonators exhibit a remarkable room temperature Q factor that even exceeds that of single crystal silicon. A study of the temperature dependent variation of the Q of a 255 micromx255 micromx30 nm thick high-stress Si3N4 membrane reveals that the dissipation Q-1 decreases with lower temperatures and is approximately 3 orders of magnitude smaller than the universal behavior. Stress-relieved cantilevers fabricated from the same material show a Q that is more consistent with typical disordered materials. e-beam and x-ray studies of the nitride film's structure reveal characteristics consistent with a disordered state. Thus, it is shown that stress alters the Q-1, violating the universality of dissipation in disordered materials in a self-supporting structure.

Acoustic properties of amorphous silica between 1 and 500 mK.

We have made reliable measurements of the sound velocity delta v/v(0) and internal friction Q(-1) in vitreous silica at 1.03, 3.74, and 14.0 kHz between 1 mK and 0.5 K. In contrast with earlier studies that did not span as wide a temperature and frequency range, our measurements of Q(-1) reveal a crossover (as T decreases) only near 10 mK from the T(3) dependence predicted by the standard tunneling model to a T dependence predicted if interactions are accounted for. We find good fits at all frequencies using a single interaction parameter, the prefactor of the interaction-driven relaxation rate, in contrast to earlier claims of a frequency dependent power law. We also show that the discrepancy in the slopes d(delta v/v(0))/d(log(10)T) below and above the sound velocity maximum (1: -1 observed, 1: -2 predicted) can be resolved by assuming a modified distribution of tunneling states.

Dissipation mechanisms near the superfluid 3He transition in aerogel.

We have investigated the dissipation (Q-1) using the torsion pendulum technique for pure 3He and 3He-4He mixtures in silica aerogel near the 3He superfluid transition (T(c)) in aerogel. With pure 3He the Q-1 decreases at the onset of superfluidity. When phase separated 3He-4He mixtures are introduced into the aerogel, the Q-1 does not decrease as rapidly and eventually increases for the highest 4He content. We provide a model for the related attenuation of transverse sound alpha that takes into account elastic and inelastic scattering processes and exhibits a decrease in alpha at T(c).

Sound propagation in coexistent Bose and Fermi superfluids in aerogel.

We report the first observation of longitudinal sound propagation in three dimensionally distributed Bose and Fermi superfluids in an acoustic investigation of phase separated 3He-4He mixtures confined to aerogel. At mK temperatures, this inhomogeneous system exhibits simultaneous 3He and 4He superfluidity leading to two "slow modes" along with the conventional sound mode. We also infer the superfluidity of isolated bubbles of pure 3He in a large 4He concentration sample.