The Thyromimetic KB2115 (Eprotirome) Induces Rat Hepatocyte Proliferation.

Although the hepatomitogenic activity of T3 is well established, the wide range of harmful effects exerted by this hormone precludes its use in regenerative therapy. The aim of this study was to investigate whether an agonist of TRß, KB2115 (Eprotirome), could exert a mitogenic effect in the liver, without most of the adverse T3/TRα-dependent side effects. F-344 rats treated with KB2115 for 1 week displayed a massive increase in bromodeoxyuridine incorporation (from 20% to 40% vs. 5% of controls), which was associated with increased mitotic activity in the absence of significant signs of liver toxicity. Noteworthy, while cardiac hypertrophy typical of T3 was not observed, beneficial effects, such as lowering blood cholesterol levels, were associated to KB2115 administration. Following a single dose of KB2115, hepatocyte proliferation was evident as early as 18 h, demonstrating its direct mitogenic effect. No increase in serum transaminase levels or apoptosis was observed prior to or concomitantly with the S phase. While KB2115-induced mitogenesis was not associated to enhance expression of c-fos, c-jun, and c-myc, cyclin D1 levels rapidly increased. In conclusion, KB2115 induces hepatocyte proliferation without overt toxicity. Hence, this agent may be useful for regenerative therapies in liver transplantation or other surgical settings.

Yes-associated protein regulation of adaptive liver enlargement and hepatocellular carcinoma development in mice.

UNLABELLED: The Hippo kinase cascade, a growth-suppressive pathway that ultimately antagonizes the transcriptional coactivator Yes-associated protein (YAP), has been shown in transgenic animals to orchestrate organ size regulation. The purpose of this study was to determine whether in non-genetically modified mice (1) the Hippo pathway is involved in the regulation of adaptive liver enlargement caused by the mitogen 1,4-bis[2-(3,5-dichloropyridyloxy)]benzene (TCPOBOP), an agonist of constitutive androstane receptor and (2) a dysregulation of this pathway occurs during the development of chemically induced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). We show that liver enlargement caused by TCPOBOP was associated with an increase of YAP protein levels that paralleled the increase in 2-bromodeoxyuridine incorporation. Interestingly, when a second dose of TCPOBOP was given to mice with enlarged livers, no further increases in liver mass or YAP protein levels were observed, suggesting that the Hippo pathway prevents further growth of the hyperplastic liver. Viral-mediated exogenous expression of active YAP in mouse livers was able to partially overcome the block of hepatocyte proliferation. We also show that HCCs developed in mice given diethylnitrosamine and then subjected to repeated treatments with TCPOBOP had increased levels of YAP that were associated with down-regulation of microRNA 375, which is known to control YAP expression, and with enhanced levels of alpha-fetoprotein and connective tissue growth factor, two target genes of YAP. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that the Hippo pathway regulates adaptive liver enlargement and is probably inactivated in initiated cells that escape the suppressive constrain exerted on the surrounding normal tissue, thus allowing clonal expansion to HCC.

Mild synthetic approach to novel indole-1-carbinols and preliminary evaluation of their cytotoxicity in hepatocarcinoma cells.

A mild and versatile method for the synthesis of some novel indole-1-carbinols has been developed via one-pot reaction of indoles and paraformaldehyde in the presence of an excess of CaO, MgO, ZnO or TiO(2). The solvent-free reaction provided all the indole derivatives in moderate to good yields and short reaction times. Moreover, the effect of some selected indole-1-carbinols on cell proliferation of the hepatoma cell line FaO was evaluated.

Role of the Hippo pathway in liver regeneration and repair: recent advances.

Although the signaling pathways involved in normal liver regeneration have been well characterized, less has been done for livers affected by chronic tissue damage. These "abnormal livers" have an impaired regenerative response that leads to liver repair and fibrosis. The tumor suppressor Hippo pathway plays a key role in liver regeneration and repair. On this basis, this review discusses recent studies focusing on the involvement of the Hippo signaling pathway during "normal healthy liver regeneration" (i.e., in a normal liver after 2/3 partial hepatectomy) and "abnormal liver regeneration" (i.e., in a liver damaged by chronic disease). This could be an important question to address with respect to new therapies aimed at improving impaired liver regenerative responses. The studies reported here have shown that activation of the Hippo coactivators YAP/TAZ during normal liver regeneration promotes the formation of a new bile duct network through direct BEC proliferation or/and hepatocyte dedifferentiation to HPCs which can trans-differentiate to BECs. Moreover, YAP/TAZ signaling interaction with other signaling pathways mediates the recruitment and activation of Kupffer cells, which release mitogenic cytokines for parenchymal and/or non-parenchymal cells and engage in phagocytosis of cellular debris. In addition, YAP-mediated activation of stellate cells (HSCs) promotes liver regeneration through the synthesis of extracellular matrix. However, in chronically diseased livers, where the predetermined threshold for proper liver regeneration is exceeded, YAP/TAZ activation results in a reparative process characterized by liver fibrosis. In this condition, YAP/TAZ activation in parenchymal and non-parenchymal cells results in (i) differentiation of quiescent HSCs into myofibroblastic HSCs; (ii) recruitment of macrophages releasing inflammatory cytokines; (iii) polarization of macrophages toward the M2 phenotype. Since accumulation of damaged hepatocytes in chronic liver injury represent a significant risk factor for the development of hepatocarcinoma, this review also discussed the involvement of the Hippo pathway in the clearance of damaged cells.

Metabolomics analysis of plasma samples of patients with fibromyalgia and electromagnetic sensitivity using GC-MS technique.

Fibromyalgia (FM) is a chronic and systemic condition that causes widespread chronic pain, asthenia, and muscle stiffness, as well as in some cases depression, anxiety, and disorders of the autonomic system. The exact causes that lead to the development of FM are still unknown today. In a percentage of individuals, the symptoms of FM are often triggered and/or exacerbated by proximity to electrical and electromagnetic devices. Plasma metabolomic profile of 54 patients with fibromyalgia and self-reported electromagnetic sensitivity (IEI-EMF) were compared to 23 healthy subjects using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) coupled with multivariate statistical analysis techniques. Before the GC-MS analysis the plasma samples were extracted with a modified Folch method and then derivatized with methoxamine hydrochloride in pyridine solution and N-trimethylsilyltrifuoroacetamide. The combined analysis allowed to identify a metabolomic profile able of distinguishing IEI-EMF patients and healthy subjects. IEI-EMF patients were therefore characterized by the alteration of 19 metabolites involved in different metabolic pathways such as energy metabolism, muscle, and pathways related to oxidative stress defense and chronic pain. The results obtained in this study complete the metabolomic "picture" previously investigated on the same cohort of IEI-EMF patients with 1H-NMR spectroscopy, placing a further piece for better understanding the pathophysiological mechanisms in patients with IEI-EMF.

Sex Hormones as Key Modulators of the Immune Response in Multiple Sclerosis: A Review.

BACKGROUND: A variety of autoimmune diseases, including MS, amplify sex-based physiological differences in immunological responsiveness. Female MS patients experience pathophysiological changes during reproductive phases (pregnancy and menopause). Sex hormones can act on immune cells, potentially enabling them to modify MS risk, activity, and progression, and to play a role in treatment. METHODS: Scientific papers (published between 1998 and 2021) were selected through PubMed, Google Scholar, and Web of Science literature repositories. The search was limited to publications analyzing the hormonal profile of male and female MS patients during different life phases, in particular focusing on sex hormone treatment. RESULTS: Both men and women with MS have lower testosterone levels compared to healthy controls. The levels of estrogens and progesterone increase during pregnancy and then rapidly decrease after delivery, possibly mediating an immune-stabilizing process. The literature examined herein evidences the neuroprotective effect of testosterone and estrogens in MS, supporting further examinations of their potential therapeutic uses. CONCLUSIONS: A correlation has been identified between sex hormones and MS clinical activity. The combination of disease-modifying therapies with estrogen or estrogen plus a progestin receptor modulator promoting myelin repair might represent an important strategy for MS treatment in the future.

Expression of c-jun is not mandatory for mouse hepatocyte proliferation induced by two nuclear receptor ligands: TCPOBOP and T3.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Mice lacking c-jun in the liver display impaired regeneration after partial hepatectomy (PH), and were reported to be more resistant to chemically-induced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). We investigated the role of c-jun in normal and preneoplastic hepatocyte proliferation induced by ligands of nuclear receptors, which cause liver hyperplasia in the absence of cell loss/death. METHODS: The effect of 1,4-bis[2-(3,5-dichloropyridyloxy)]benzene (TCPOBOP) on hepatocyte proliferation was determined in c-jun conditional knockout (c-jun(Δli)) or in mouse liver where c-jun has been silenced. To study the role of c-jun in HCC development, c-jun(Δli) and WT mice were given diethylnitrosamine (DENA) followed by repeated injections of TCPOBOP. RESULTS: Hepatocyte proliferation induced by TCPOBOP was associated with a stronger proliferative response and earlier S phase entry in c-jun(Δli) mice, compared to WT animals. Moreover, silencing of c-jun in the liver of CD-1 mice caused increased hepatocyte proliferation. A stronger hepatocyte proliferative response of c-jun(Δli) mice was observed also following treatment with a ligand of thyroid hormone receptor. Finally, loss of c-jun did not inhibit the development of HCC induced by DENA and promoted by TCPOBOP. CONCLUSIONS: (i) c-jun may, under certain conditions, negatively regulate proliferation of normal hepatocytes, (ii) c-jun is not an absolute requirement for DENA/TCPOBOP-induced HCC formation, suggesting that the therapeutic potential of c-jun/JNK inhibition in liver tumors might be impaired by an increased stimulation of cell growth due to blockade of the c-jun pathway.

TRbeta is the critical thyroid hormone receptor isoform in T3-induced proliferation of hepatocytes and pancreatic acinar cells.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Thyroid hormones elicit many cellular and metabolic effects in various organs. Most of these actions, including mitogenesis, are mediated by the thyroid hormone 3,5,3'-triiodo-l-thyronine (T3) nuclear receptors (TRs). They are transcription factors, expressed as different isoforms encoded by the TRalpha and TRbeta genes. Here, experiments were performed to determine whether (i) T3-induces hepatocyte proliferation in mouse liver and pancreas, and, (ii) which TR isoform, is responsible for its mitogenic effect. METHODS: Cell proliferation was measured by bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) incorporation after T3 or the TRbeta agonist GC-1 in liver and pancreas of CD-1, C57BL, or TRalpha(0/0) mice. Cell cycle-associated proteins were measured by Western blot. RESULTS: T3 added to the diet at a concentration of 4 mg/kg caused a striking increase in BrdU incorporation in mouse hepatocytes. Increased BrdU incorporation was associated with enhanced protein levels of cyclin D1 and PCNA and decreased levels of p27. Treatment with GC-1, a selective agonist of the TRbeta isoform, also induced a strong mitogenic response of mouse hepatocytes and pancreatic acinar cells which was similar to that elicited by T3. Finally, treatment with T3 of mice TRalpha(0/0) induced a proliferative response in the liver and pancreas, similar to that of their wild type counterpart. CONCLUSIONS: These results demonstrate that T3 is a powerful inducer of cell proliferation in mouse liver and suggest that the beta-isoform is responsible for the hepatomitogenic activity of T3. The same isoform seems to also mediate the proliferation of mouse pancreatic acinar cells.

Thyroid hormone receptor ligands induce regression of rat preneoplastic liver lesions causing their reversion to a differentiated phenotype.

UNLABELLED: Triiodothyronine (T3), through interaction with its intracellular thyroid hormone receptors (TRs), influences various physiological functions, including metabolism, development, and growth. We investigated the effect of T3 and the selective TR-beta agonist GC-1 in two models of hepatocarcinogenesis. Preneoplastic lesions were induced in F-344 rats via a single dose of diethylnitrosamine, followed by a choline-deficient (CD) diet for 10 weeks. Rat subgroups were then fed the CD diet or a CD diet containing either 4 mg/kg T3 or 5 mg/kg GC-1 for another week. Rats fed a CD diet alone showed a large number (65/cm(2)) of preneoplastic lesions positive for the placental form of glutathione S-transferase (GSTP). Coadministration of T3 for the last week caused an almost complete disappearance of the foci (3/cm(2)). A reduction of GSTP-positive foci was also observed in rats fed a CD + GC-1 diet (28/cm(2) versus 75/cm(2) of rats fed a CD diet alone) in the absence of significant differences in labeling or apoptotic index of preneoplastic hepatocytes between the two groups. An antitumoral effect of GC-1 was also observed with the resistant hepatocyte model of hepatocarcinogenesis. Nodule regression was associated with a return to a fully differentiated phenotype, indicated by the loss of the fetal markers GSTP and gamma glutamyl transpeptidase, and reacquisition of the activity of glucose 6-phosphatase and adenosine triphosphatase, two enzymes expressed in normal hepatocytes. CONCLUSION: Our results indicate that activated TRs negatively influence the carcinogenic process through induction of a differentiation program of preneoplastic hepatocytes. The results also suggest that TRs could be a meaningful target in liver cancer therapy.

α-Lipoic acid induces Endoplasmic Reticulum stress-mediated apoptosis in hepatoma cells.

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common liver cancer and a major cause of adult death. The current treatments for HCC suffer from drug resistance and poor prognosis; therefore, novel therapeutic agents are urgently needed. Phytochemicals have been proposed to treat a range of cancers. Among them, α-lipoic acid (α-LA), a naturally synthesized antioxidant found in various dietary animal and plant sources, prevents oxidant-mediated cell death in normal cells while inducing apoptosis in several cancer cell lines. Previously, we demonstrated that the treatment of hepatoma cells with α-LA induced apoptosis, which was preceded by the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and activation of the p53 protein, a known inducer of mitochondria-mediated apoptosis. Several studies have shown that ROS-induced apoptosis is associated with endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and Unfolded Protein Response (UPR) activation. Herein, we investigated if α-LA-induced apoptosis in hepatoma cell lines was ER stress- and UPR-mediated by gene expression profiling analyses. UPR and ER stress pathways were the most up-regulated after treatment with α-LA. This finding, which has been confirmed by expression analyses of ER- and UPR-associated proteins, provides a better understanding of the molecular mechanisms behind the anti-tumoral action of α-LA on hepatoma cells.

Metabolomics and psychological features in fibromyalgia and electromagnetic sensitivity.

Fibromyalgia (FM) as Fibromyalgia and Electromagnetic Sensitivity (IEI-EMF) are a chronic and systemic syndrome. The main symptom is represented by strong and widespread pain in the musculoskeletal system. The exact causes that lead to the development of FM and IEI-EMF are still unknown. Interestingly, the proximity to electrical and electromagnetic devices seems to trigger and/or amplify the symptoms. We investigated the blood plasma metabolome in IEI-EMF and healthy subjects using 1H NMR spectroscopy coupled with multivariate statistical analysis. All the individuals were subjected to tests for the evaluation of psychological and physical features. No significant differences between IEI-EMF and controls relative to personality aspects, Locus of Control, and anxiety were found. Multivariate statistical analysis on the metabolites identified by NMR analysis allowed the identification of a distinct metabolic profile between IEI-EMF and healthy subjects. IEI-EMF were characterized by higher levels of glycine and pyroglutamate, and lower levels of 2-hydroxyisocaproate, choline, glutamine, and isoleucine compared to healthy subjects. These metabolites are involved in several metabolic pathways mainly related to oxidative stress defense, pain mechanisms, and muscle metabolism. The results here obtained highlight possible physiopathological mechanisms in IEI-EMF patients to be better defined.

Thyroid hormone (T3) and TRbeta agonist GC-1 inhibit/reverse nonalcoholic fatty liver in rats.

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease is the most common noninfectious liver disease in clinical practice, and there is an increasing need for new therapeutic approaches for the treatment of this liver disease. Here, we examined the effect of the thyroid hormone triiodothyronine (T3) and the agonist of the thyroid hormone receptor beta isoform (TRbeta), GC-1, on fatty liver and steatohepatitis induced in rodents by a choline-methionine deficient (CMD) diet. Male Fischer 344 rats fed a CMD diet for 1 wk developed a marked fatty liver and mild hepatitis. Concurrent administration of T3 resulted in a complete prevention of the fatty change associated with increased fatty acid mitochondrial and peroxisomal beta-oxidation. To investigate whether T3 could also reverse fully established fatty liver, rats were fed a CMD diet for 10 wk and then cofed T3 for 1 wk. Coadministration of T3 resulted in a complete regression of liver steatosis associated with a decrease of lipid peroxidation, cyclooxygenase-2 expression, and activation of phospho-STAT3 and phospho-SAPK/JNK. Finally, additional experiments showed that GC-1, which has no significant side effects on heart rate, prevented and reverted CMD-induced fat accumulation, and ameliorated steatohepatitis. These results indicate that TR agonists have the potential to inhibit or reverse hepatic steatosis induced by a nutritional model.

Crosstalk between Metabolic Alterations and Altered Redox Balance in PTC-Derived Cell Lines.

Background: Thyroid cancer is the most common endocrine malignancy, with papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC) being the most common (85⁻90%) among all the different types of thyroid carcinomas. Cancer cells show metabolic alterations and, due to their rapid proliferation, an accumulation of reactive oxygen species, playing a fundamental role in cancer development and progression. Currently, the crosstalk among thyrocytes metabolism, redox balance and oncogenic mutations remain poorly characterized. The aim of this study was to investigate the interplay among metabolic alterations, redox homeostasis and oncogenic mutations in PTC-derived cells. Methods: Metabolic and redox profile, glutamate-cysteine ligase, glutaminase-1 and metabolic transporters were evaluated in PTC-derived cell lines with distinguished genetic background (TPC-1, K1 and B-CPAP), as well as in an immortalized thyroid cell line (Nthy-ori3-1) selected as control. Results: PTC-derived cells, particularly B-CPAP cells, harboring BRAF, TP53 and human telomerase reverse transcriptase (hTERT) mutation, displayed an increase of metabolites and transporters involved in energetic pathways. Furthermore, all PTC-derived cells showed altered redox homeostasis, as reported by the decreased antioxidant ratios, as well as the increased levels of intracellular oxidant species. Conclusion: Our findings confirmed the pivotal role of the metabolism and redox state regulation in the PTC biology. Particularly, the most perturbed metabolic phenotypes were found in B-CPAP cells, which are characterized by the most aggressive genetic background.

Alpha-lipoic acid promotes the growth of rat hepatic pre-neoplastic lesions in the choline-deficient model.

alpha-lipoic acid (alpha-LA) is an antioxidant used in a number of conditions related to liver diseases. Herein, we investigated the effect of alpha-LA on the development of rat pre-neoplastic lesions generated by a model of hepatocarcinogenesis, which has similarities in its histopathological sequence to human hepatocellular carcinoma development with cirrhosis. Initiation of hepatocytes was achieved by treatment with a single dose of diethylnitrosamine and promotion by feeding a choline-methionine-deficient diet (CMD), with or without alpha-LA. Pre-neoplastic lesions were identified by their positivity to the placental form of glutathione S-transferase (GSTP) or to gamma glutamyl transpeptidase. alpha-LA given to rats fed a CMD for 6 weeks dramatically increased the number of GSTP-positive foci as compared with rats fed a CMD alone (96/cm(2) versus 7/cm(2)), the mean foci area (0.033 versus 0.008 mm(2)) and the percentage of GSTP-positive liver tissue (3.01 versus 0.07%). Essentially similar results were obtained after 10 weeks of treatment. Co-treatment with CMD + alpha-LA also resulted in the enhancement of fat accumulation, lipid peroxidation and hepatocyte death; increased expression of tumor necrosis factor-alpha, cytochrome 2E1 and cyclooxygenase-2, enhanced activation of c-jun N-terminal kinase and signal transducer activator of transcription 3, and chronic hepatocyte proliferation was also observed. No such effects were observed when alpha-LA was added to a choline-supplemented diet. In conclusion, administration of alpha-LA in conditions associated with hepatic damage aggravates liver injury and stimulates the development of pre-neoplastic lesions; the results also suggest caution in its use in the presence of chronic liver injury.

Potential utility of xenobiotic mitogens in the context of liver regeneration in the elderly and living-related transplantation.

Although liver regeneration occurring after partial hepatectomy (PH) is greatly reduced in aged mice, liver hyperplasia induced by xenobiotic mitogens was found to be age independent. Here, we investigated the potential utility of mitogens in stimulating liver regeneration in old mice subjected to two-third PH. Although virtually no hepatocytes entered S phase 48 h after PH, pretreatment (2 h prior to surgery) with 1,4-bis(2-(3,5-dichloropyridyloxy)benzene (TCPOBOP), a ligand of constitutive androstane receptor, induced an increase of bromodeoxyuridine incorporation and enhanced the expression of cyclin D1, cyclin A and proliferating cell nuclear antigen . Next, we investigated the potential utility of mitogens in the context of donor conditioning prior to living-related transplantation. Three days after TCPOBOP administration to intact young mice, an almost doubling of the liver mass and DNA content occurred; the regenerative response to two-third resection of the TCPOBOP-induced hyperplastic liver was similar to that of mice subjected to PH alone, suggesting that an increased liver mass at the time of surgery does not inhibit the regenerative capacity. The present results suggest that mitogen-induced hyperplasia is a promising tool in conditions characterized by reduced regenerative capacity, such as in the elderly, or when a rapid increase of liver mass is required, such as in living-related transplantation.

Liver regeneration in aged mice: new insights.

The regenerative capacity of the liver after resection is reduced with aging. Recent studies on rodents revealed that both intracellular and extracellular factors are involved in the impairment of liver mass recovery during aging. Among the intracellular factors, age-dependent decrease of BubR1 (budding uninhibited by benzimidazole-related 1), YAP (Yes-associated protein) and SIRT1 (Sirtuin-1) have been associated to dampening of tissue reconstitution and inhibition of cell cycle genes following partial hepatectomy. Extra-cellular factors, such as age-dependent changes in hepatic stellate cells affect liver regeneration through inhibition of progenitor cells and reduction of liver perfusion. Furthermore, chronic release of pro-inflammatory proteins by senescent cells (SASP) affects cell proliferation suggesting that senescent cell clearance might improve tissue regeneration. Accordingly, young plasma restores liver regeneration in aged animals through autophagy re-establishment. This review will discuss how intracellular and extracellular factors cooperate to guarantee a proper liver regeneration and the possible causes of its impairment during aging. The possibility that an improvement of the liver regenerative capacity in elderly might be achieved through elimination of senescent cells via autophagy or by administration of direct mitogenic agents devoid of cytotoxicity will also be entertained.

Heme oxygenase-1 inhibitor tin-protoporphyrin improves liver regeneration after partial hepatectomy.

AIMS: This study investigates the effects of the heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) inhibitor tin protoporphyrin IX (SnPP), on rat liver regeneration following 2/3 partial hepatectomy (PH) in order to clarify the controversial role of HO-1 in the regulation of cellular growth. MAIN METHODS: Male Wistar rats received a subcutaneous injection of either SnPP (10 µmoles/kg body weight) or saline 12 h before PH and 0, 12 and 24 h after surgery. Rats were killed from 0.5 to 36 h after PH. Bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) incorporation was used to analyze cell proliferation. Immunohistochemistry, Western blot analysis and quantitative Real Time-PCR were used to assess molecular and cellular changes after PH. KEY FINDINGS: Data obtained have shown that administration of SnPP caused an increased entry of hepatocytes into S phase after PH, as demonstrated by labeling (L.I.) and mitotic (M.I.) indexes. Furthermore, enhanced cell cycle entry in PH-animals pre-treated with SnPP was associated with an earlier activation of IL-6 and transcription factors involved in liver regeneration, such as phospho-JNK and phospho-STAT3. SIGNIFICANCE: Summarizing, data here reported demonstrate that inhibition of HO-1 enhances rat liver regeneration after PH which is associated to a very rapid increase in the levels of inflammatory mediators such as IL-6, phopsho-JNK and phospho-STAT3, suggesting that HO-1 could act as a negative modulator of liver regeneration. Knowledge about the mechanisms of liver regeneration can be applied to clinical problems caused by delayed liver growth, and HO-1 repression may be a mechanism by which cells can faster proliferate in response to tissue damage.

A novel lactoferrin-modified stealth liposome for hepatoma-delivery of triiodothyronine.

Triiodothyronine (T3), a thyroid hormone synthesized and secreted by the thyroid gland, plays an essential role in morphogenesis and differentiation through interaction with its nuclear receptors (TRs). However, there are increasing evidences for its role in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) suppression. The aim of this work was to develop an effective hepatocellular carcinoma targeting drug delivery system to improve T3 delivery to hepatic cancer cells as well as to reduce toxic side effects. Three different liposomal systems, such as unmodified, Stealth (PEGylated) and Lactoferrin (Lf)-modified-Stealth liposomes were successfully prepared by the film hydration method, and fully characterized. Liposome cell interactions and cellular uptake were evaluated in three different HCC target cells (FaO, HepG2 and SKHep) by confocal microscopy. Finally, in vitro cytotoxicity studies were carried out by using MTT assay to evaluate toxicity of the liposome delivery system and to test the effect of T3 when incorporated into liposomes. Internalization studies, performed using Lf-modified-liposomes labeled with the lipophilic marker Rho-PE and loaded with the hydrophilic probe CF, clearly demonstrated the effective internalization of both hydrophilic and lipophilic markers. Lf-liposomes might markedly enhance the specific cell binding and cellular uptake in hepatoma cells due to the mediating of Lf that could bind with high affinity to multiple receptors on cell surface, such as ASGP-R. Results obtained from this study highlight that the Lf- modified-liposomal delivery system may ensure a specific and sustained T3 delivery, thus, allowing reduced therapeutic doses and deleterious side effects of T3.

Thyroid hormone induces cyclin D1 nuclear translocation and DNA synthesis in adult rat cardiomyocytes.

Although mammalian cardiomyocytes lose their proliferative capacity after birth, there is evidence that postmitotic cardiomyocytes can proliferate provided that cyclin D1 accumulates in the nucleus. Here we show by Northern blot, Western analysis, and immunohistochemistry that 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine (T3) treatment of adult rats caused an increase of cyclin D1 mRNA and protein levels. The increased cyclin D1 protein content was associated with its translocation into the nucleus of cardiomyocytes. These changes were accompanied by the re-entry of cardiomyocytes into the cell cycle, as demonstrated by increased levels of cyclin A, PCNA, and incorporation of bromodeoxyuridine into DNA (labeling index was 30.2% in T3-treated rats vs. 2.2% in controls). Entry into the S phase was associated with an increased mitotic activity as demonstrated by positivity of cardiomyocyte nuclei to antibodies anti-phosphohistone-3, a specific marker of the mitotic phase (mitotic index was 3.01/1000 cardiomyocte nuclei in hyperthyroid rats vs. 0.04 in controls). No biochemical or histological signs of tissue damage were observed in the heart of T3-treated rats. These results demonstrated that T3 treatment is associated with a re-entry of cardiomyocytes into the cell cycle and so may be important for the development of future therapeutic strategies aimed at inducing proliferation of cardiomyocytes.

The thyroid hormone receptor-beta agonist GC-1 induces cell proliferation in rat liver and pancreas.

Thyroid hormones regulate cell growth, cell differentiation, and metabolic functions via interaction with the thyroid hormone nuclear receptors (TRs). Recently, a small class of halogen-free high-affinity thyroid hormone agonists has been developed that are highly selective for the TRbeta subtype. Because of the selective hyperthyroidism generated by one of these agonists, GC-1, this compound has the potential to be developed as a new therapeutic agent for the treatment of a variety of metabolic disturbances, including lipid disorders and obesity; thus, it becomes important to determine whether GC-1 has other unknown effects on potential target organs. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of GC-1 on cell proliferation in rat liver and pancreas. Rats treated with GC-1 (50 or 100 mug/100 g body weight) were killed at different time points. Hepatic and pancreatic cell proliferation was monitored by immunohistochemical determination of bromodeoxyuridine incorporation. The expression of cell cycle-related genes was analyzed by Northern and Western analysis. The results show that GC-1 strongly stimulates rat hepatocyte proliferation in the absence of tissue injury. Although GC-1-induced hepatocyte proliferation was associated with a rapid increase in cyclin D1 mRNA levels, no change in the expression of c-jun and c-fos was observed. GC-1 also induced massive pancreatic cell proliferation. The results indicate that the TRbeta-selective agonist GC-1 is a strong mitogen for hepatocytes and pancreatic acinar cells. Furthermore, they suggest that the TRbeta receptor is the mediator for the mitogenic activity of thyroid hormone and other thyromimetics.