Transformation of Pectins into Non-Ionic or Anionic Surfactants Using a One-Pot and Cascade Mode Process.

The present article describes the one-pot synthesis of double- and single-tailed surfactants by a cascade process that involves the hydrolysis/butanolysis of pectins into butyl galacturonate monosaccharides followed by transesterification/transacetalisation processes with fatty alcohols, and subsequent aqueous basic and acid treatments. The cascade mode allows the depolymerisation to proceed more efficiently, and the purification conditions are optimised to make the production of single-tailed surfactants more manufacturable. These products in a pure form or as mixtures with alkyl glycosides resulting from butanolysis and transglycosylation of pectin-derived hexoses, exhibit attractive surface-tension properties, especially for the n-oleyl ᴅ-galactosiduronic acid products. In addition, a readily biodegradability and an absence of aquatic ecotoxicity are shown for the galacturonic acid derivatives possessing an oleyl alkyl chain at the anomeric position.

Recent progress in the field of beta-(1,3)-glucans and new applications.

Beta-(1,3)-glucans are widely distributed within microorganisms or seaweeds in which they act as membrane components or for energy storage, respectively. Since these glucans are not biosynthesized by mammals, they are likely to activate the immune system of their host. Since the discovery of their positive involvement as immunomodulator agents, numerous studies were published all around the glycosciences. These works deal with purification procedures, analytical chemistry, synthetic processes, chemical modification of the natural polysaccharides, determination of their physicochemical properties, and assessment of their biological and medicinal effects through in vitro and in vivo studies. This article aims at presenting some recent results linked to beta-(1,3)-glucans through two closely connected points of view, i.e. biology and chemistry. Biological aspects will be focused more particularly on discovery of some receptors present on immunocompetent cells and scope and limitations of chemical synthesis and/or modifications will be described. Moreover, this paper will also introduce some new chemo-enzymatic synthetic methods using wild-type or mutant glycosidases and will be extended to novel opportunities of applications of beta-(1,3)-glucans in nanotechnology resulting from a better understanding of their self-assembling propensity in aqueous media.

Synthesis of galactofuranose-containing disaccharides using thioimidoyl-type donors.

Four galactofuranose-containing disaccharides have been prepared utilising various thioimidates [Galf-SC(NR)XR'] and suitably protected acceptors as key precursors. We observed that the efficiency of the coupling reactions was particularly dependent on the aglycon present on the furanosyl donor when copper(II) ions were used as the promoter, and that activation could be correlated with the nature of the third heteroatom, X.

Synthetic Approaches to Novel Archaeal Tetraether Glycolipid Analogues.

Symmetrical and unsymmetrical archaeal tetraether glycolipid analogues have been prepared. The syntheses are based upon the elaboration of lipid cores from versatile chiral starting materials followed by simultaneous or sequential introduction of polar headgroups. Three pathways (A-C) were elaborated for the synthesis of stereochemically defined lipids 14-16 characterized by a straight bridging spacer and two dihydrocitronellyl chains attached to glycerol units at the sn-3 and sn-2 positions, respectively. Pathway C appeared to be particularly advantageous for the synthesis of tetraether 9, which possesses a cyclopentane unit as found in thermoacidophilic lipids. Diglycosylated lipids 4-6 were produced in 49-53% yields by reaction of diols 14-16 with beta-D-galactofuranosyl donor 31, whereas unsymmetrical lipids possessing either two different carbohydrate units 7 or a saccharidic moiety and a phosphate group 8 were efficiently prepared from monoprotected diol 35. These compounds represent the first examples of tetraether-type analogues containing a phosphate unit and/or glycosyl moieties.

A new synthesis of the oligosaccharide domain of acarbose.

Synthesis of the oligosaccharide domain of acarbose was reinvestigated and was optimally performed using a maltosidic acceptor, already bearing a alpha-D-Glc-(1-->4)-D-Glc bond, and a new D-fucopyranosyl donor. The crucial glycosylation step was improved by varying three different parameters and notably by focusing on the C-4 protecting group of the fucosyl residue, solvent and promoter. The resulting trisaccharide was further transformed into an electrophilic species in order to open further derivatization perspectives for designing new acarbose analogues. Substitution reactions were efficiently carried out with azide and thiocyanate anions. Two other potentially interesting trisaccharidic compounds were also synthesized, i.e. the C-4III amine and the corresponding isothiocyanate.

Beta-anomeric selectivity in the glycosidation of D-mannofuranurono-6,3-lactone catalyzed by boron trifluoride diethyl etherate.

The BF3-promoted glycosylation of D-mannofuranurono-6,3-lactone with dodecanol or methanol afforded n-alkyl beta-D-mannofuranosidurono-6,3-lactone. Reduction of n-dodecyl beta-D-mannofuranosidurono-6,3-lactone with sodium borohydride yielded the corresponding alkyl beta-D-mannofuranoside.

Self-Organization and Formation of Liquid Crystal Phases by Molecular Templates Related to Membrane Components of Archaebacteria.

Tubular supramolecular aggregates are formed from glycolipids 1, which are closely related to natural components of membranes of archaebacteria. The glycolipids exhibit disordered columnar thermotropic and hexagonal lyotropic liquid crystal phases. Whereas formation of the mesophases is insensitive to stereochemical factors, formation of the tubules is dependent on the configuration of the stereocenters that are shown in the picture but not specified.

First o-glycosylation from unprotected 1-thioimidoyl hexofuranosides assisted by divalent cations.

The preparation of O-hexofuranosides was accomplished from unprotected 1-thioimidoyl furanosides as donors. The present methodology was first used for the synthesis of octyl galactofuranoside and further extended to D-galactofuranose-containing disaccharides. Within this study, we emphasized the need for additional complexing cations to maintain the furanose ring in its initial size. After experimentation, calcium ion was first used concomitantly with trimethylsilyl trifluoromethanesulfonate, the latter being able to activate the thioimidate and the former being likely to inhibit ring expansion. Moreover, an improvement was performed by using copper(II) trifluoromethanesulfonate which could then meet the requirements as both promoter and complexing agent.

General one-step synthesis of free hexofuranosyl 1-phosphates using unprotected 1-thioimidoyl hexofuranosides.

A general one-step strategy is developed for the synthesis of hexofuranosyl 1-phosphates starting from new unprotected glycofuranosyl donors. It required first the preparation of new 1-thiohexofuranosides bearing a thioimidoyl heterocycle as a leaving group. The presence of sulfur and/or nitrogen atom(s) on the aglycon allowed remote activation of these thioglycofuranosides by anhydrous phosphoric acid and led to the target phosphates 9, 27, 29, and 30 in good to excellent selectivities and, more importantly, with very limited or no ring expansion. Moreover, this one-step phosphorylation reaction could be significantly improved by avoiding any tedious protecting group manipulations on negatively charged compounds and by focusing on a simple but general procedure of purification. This approach was applied to the diastereocontrolled synthesis of d-galacto- and d-glucofuranosyl 1-phosphates and also to the preparation of rare epimer and/or deoxy counterparts, that is, d-manno- and d-fucofuranosyl derivatives.

Glucan-like synthetic oligosaccharides: iterative synthesis of linear oligo-beta-(1,3)-glucans and immunostimulatory effects.

Small reducing and linear oligo-beta-(1,3)-glucans, which are able to act as phytoallexin elicitors or as immunostimulating agents in anticancer therapy, were synthesized according to an iterative strategy that involved a unique key monosaccharidic donor. To avoid anomeric mixtures, the reducing entity of the target oligomers was first locked with benzyl alcohol and further selective deprotection of the 3-OH with DDQ afforded the desired building block as an acceptor. The latter was then used in a second cycle of glycosylation/deprotection to afford the desired disaccharide, and successive reiterations of this process provided the desired oligomers. Unusual conformational behaviors were observed by standard NMR sequences and supported by NOESY studies. Finally, removal of protecting groups afforded free tri-, tetra-, and pentaglucosides in good overall yields. Two oligosaccharides representing linear laminaritetraose and laminaripentaose were compared to the recently described beta-(1,3)-glucan phycarine. Following an intraperitoneal injection, the influx of monocytes and granulocytes into the blood and macrophages into the peritoneal cavity was comparable to that caused by phycarine. Similarly, both oligosaccharides stimulated phagocytic activity of granulocytes and macrophages. Using ELISA, we also demonstrated a significant stimulation of secretion of IL-1beta. Together these results suggest that the synthetic oligosaccharides have similar stimulatory effects as natural beta-(1,3)-glucans.

A novel synthesis of D-galactofuranosyl, D-glucofuranosyl and D-mannofuranosyl 1-phosphates based on remote activation of new and free hexofuranosyl donors.

The selective synthesis of 1,2-cis-hexofuranosyl 1-phosphates was readily accomplished according to a procedure based on the 'Remote Activation Concept'. This approach required (i) the preparation of suitable 1,2-trans-hexofuranosyl donors, so that new heterocyclic thiofuranosides were designed and synthesized, (ii) the stereocontrolled phosphorylation of the corresponding unprotected donors and (iii) the simple and fast purification of the resulting anomeric phosphates. This approach showed to be equally efficient in the galactose, glucose and mannose series.

Synthesis and supramolecular assemblies of bipolar archaeal glycolipid analogues containing a cis-1,3-disubstituted cyclopentane ring.

Unsymmetrical archaeal tetraether glycolipid analogues 1-2 incorporating a 1,3-disubstituted cyclopentane ring into the bridging chain have been synthesized. The cyclopentane has been introduced with a totally controlled cis configuration, either into the middle of the aliphatic chain or at three methylene groups from the glycerol unit linked to the bulkier disaccharide residue. Freeze-fracture and cryotransmission electron microscopy experiments clearly demonstrated unprecedented glycolipid supramolecular organizations involving two-by-two monolayer associations coupled with interconnection and fusion phenomena. Furthermore, a significant difference in the hydration properties and in the lyotropic liquid crystalline behavior of bipolar lipids 1-2 was found depending on the position of the cyclopentane residue.

Supramolecular self-assembling properties of membrane-spanning archaeal tetraether glycolipid analogues.

The self-assembling properties of a new series of archaeal tetraether glycolipid analogues 1-6 that are characterized by a bipolar architecture with two similar or different glycosidic and/or phosphate polar heads and a lipid core possessing a cyclopentane unit and/or branched chains were studied by means of differential scanning calorimetry, optical microscopy, X-ray scattering, freeze-fracture electron microscopy and dynamic light scattering. Unsymmetrical phosphate derivatives 1 and 2 spontaneously formed thermostable multilamellar and unilamellar vesicles in which most of the bipolar lipids adopted a trans-membrane conformation, as revealed by freeze-fracture electron microscopy. Supramolecular aggregates of neutral glycolipids 3-6 were found to depend on both the saccharidic polar heads and the chain composition. The presence of one glycosidic residue with rather marked hydrophilic properties, such as the lactosyl moiety, was required to allow the formation of multilamellar vesicles. Surprisingly, the introduction of a cyclopentane unit in the bridging chain was able to induce an apparent two-by-two membrane association: this unusual behaviour might be the result of unsymmetrical interfacial properties of the lipid layer caused by the presence of the cyclopentane unit.

Transient transmission of a transgene in mouse offspring following in vivo transfection of male germ cells.

Sperm-mediated gene transfer in vertebrates has undergone various developments over the last few years, in different laboratories. In the present study, we microinjected a circular plasmid, carrying the lacZ reporter gene mixed with noncommercial cationic lipids, into the seminiferous tubules of anesthetized adult mice. Histochemical analysis was used to estimate the transfection efficiency 48-96 hr and 40 days after injection. As early as 48-96 hr post-injection, an efficient transfection was revealed by a beta-galactosidase expression within both immature and differentiated germ cells. By 40 days post-injection, the specific LacZ expression was restricted to the most immature germ cells in the basal portion of the seminiferous tubules. At this time, some injected males were mated with wild-type females and the progeny were analyzed by PCR and Southern blot. We showed that the transgene was transmitted to the offspring but remained episomal, as it was found in the tail of the young animals but not at adulthood. Therefore, the plasmid seemed to be lost during the numerous germ cells divisions. This plasmid stayed in some tissues, such as skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle. No integrative forms have yet been found with the use of a circular DNA.

Cationic lipids derived from glycine betaine promote efficient and non-toxic gene transfection in cultured hepatocytes.

BACKGROUND: The low efficiency and toxicity of transfection in a primary culture of hepatocytes using cationic lipids remains a limiting step to the study of gene function and the setting up of non-viral gene therapy. METHODS: A novel class of cationic lipids (GBs) derived from natural glycine betaine compounds covalently linked to acyl chains by enzymatically hydrolysable peptide and ester bonds, a structure designed to reduce cytotoxicity, was used to improve transfection efficiency in a primary culture of rat hepatocytes. The relationship between lipid structure, lipoplex formulation and transfection efficiency was studied using six GBs (12-14-16, 22-24-26) varying in their spacer and acyl chains. RESULTS: GB12, characterized by short [(CH(2))(10)] acyl chains and spacer, allowed plasmid uptake in all cells and reporter gene expression in up to 40% of hepatocytes with a low cytotoxicity, a much higher efficiency compared with transfections using other reagents including Fugene6 and Lipofectin. We also showed that numerous cells accumulated high amounts of plasmids demonstrating that GB12 promoted a very efficient DNA transfer through plasma membrane leading to an increase in nuclear plasmid translocation, allowing a much higher gene expression. Moreover, GB12-transfected hepatocytes survived to injection in normal livers and were found to express the LacZ reporter gene. CONCLUSIONS: The non-toxic GB12 formulation is a powerful vehicle for plasmid delivery in cultured hepatocytes with relevance in liver gene therapy.

Efficient gene transfer into human epithelial cell lines using glycosylated cationic carriers and neutral glycosylated co-lipids.

To date, no clear and constant relationship has been established between the chemical structure and the efficiency of non-viral transfection reagents. Despite the improvement of synthetic transfection systems, the capacity to transfect a target cell in a specific way is still a major challenge that gene therapy needs to overcome to be successful. Consequently, we developed a strategy aimed specifically at improving transfection of targeted human epithelial cells and to examine the possible effects of electrostatic interactions. Our attention therefore focused on the development of novel glycosylated formulations, based upon the introduction of one or two different carbohydrate ligands into (i) cationic lipid structures and (ii) synthetic neutral lipids incorporated into DNA and lipoplexes. Then, these formulations were tested in vitro on two human cell lines [HeLa and 16HBE14o(-)]. We report here that one of those formulations (CG 1/DOPE) is more efficient than DOTAP/DOPE. We determined that this non-viral transfection process is partially due to an endocytotic phenomenon mediated by targeting specific receptors directed toward specific carbohydrate elements. This was shown on 16HBE14o(-) cells where we observed a 43% and a 69% decrease in transfection when we blocked these receptors by the addition of free lactose and mannose, respectively. These results highlight the large adaptability of such monocationic glycolipids in the context of targeting and gene delivery.