A comparison of pediatric liver transplant anesthesia practices with new organ procurement and transplant network pediatric policy requirements: A report from the society for the advancement of transplant anesthesia and the society for pediatric anesthesia.

INTRODUCTION: Organ Procurement and Transplant Network (OPTN) pediatric policies on knowledge and skill requirements for key personnel failed to address the Director of Anesthesia for Pediatric Liver Transplantation. A Joint Committee representing the Society for the Advancement of Transplant Anesthesia and Society for Pediatric Anesthesia (SPA) surveyed all pediatric anesthesia liver transplant practices to determine if practices were aligned with policies and what changes would be needed for compliance. METHODS: A survey of the Director or equivalent at each program collected data about specialized knowledge and skill sets. Questions focused on (1) skill and knowledge of the Director and team, (2) requirements for appointment, (3) experience in pediatrics, and (4) characteristics of the program including the availability of pediatric resources. RESULTS: Response rate was 73% (n = 63). Most responding programs had a Director (67%) with certification, selection committee, and continuing education credits outlined in existing policies. Team members met similar requirements. Alternate pathways for acquiring knowledge and skill sets were identified between programs. CONCLUSIONS: Pediatric liver transplant anesthesiologists use knowledge and skill pathways that align with the new pediatric policies. We suggest that collaborative work with oversight agencies is needed to resolve high case volume requirements originally designed for adult programs. SUMMARY: Most pediatric liver transplant anesthesiologists in the US have specialized knowledge and skills for expert care consistent with current oversight policies. Differences in pathways to acquire knowledge and skill sets were still aligned with the new policies for pediatric transplant surgeons and bylaws for the Director of Transplant Anesthesia. We conclude that minimal changes in case volume requirements to the existing Pediatric Transplant Anesthesiology Directorship criteria that authenticates the pediatric anesthesia Director's position would improve the safety of care without limiting access to transplantation.

Respiratory physiology at high altitude and considerations for pediatric patients.

Over 150 million people, including many children, live at high altitude (>2500 m) with the majority residing in Asia and South America. With increases in elevation, the partial pressure of oxygen (pO2) is reduced, resulting in a hypobaric hypoxic environment. Fortunately, humans have evolved adaptive processes which serve to acclimate the body to such conditions. These mechanisms, occurring along a specific time course, result in tachypnea, tachycardia, diuresis, and hematopoiesis, and a shift in the oxygen dissociation curve favoring an increased affinity for oxygen. These, along with other physiological effects, including increased pulmonary vascular resistance, alterations in cerebral blood flow, and changes in sensitivity to opioids, must be considered when administering anesthesia at high altitudes. Susceptible individuals or those who ascend too quickly may outpace the body's ability to acclimate resulting in one or more forms of high-altitude sickness ranging from the milder acute mountain sickness to the more serious conditions of high-altitude pulmonary edema and cerebral edema, either of which can be life-threatening if not promptly recognized and treated. Since the adaptive mechanisms for acclimatization greatly affect the cardiopulmonary systems, patients with underlying health issues such as sleep apnea, congenital heart disease, and asthma may have susceptibilities and warrant special consideration. Clinicians should have an understanding of the physiologic adaptations, anesthetic considerations, and special concerns in these populations in order to offer the best care possible.

Error traps in pediatric regional anesthesia.

Ultrasound-guided nerve blocks have revolutionized the way we provide regional anesthesia. By providing effective perioperative pain control, regional anesthesia reduces opioid consumption, decreases length of stay, and increases patient/parental satisfaction. However, error traps (circumstances that lead to erroneous actions) can defeat its inherent benefits and may result in adverse outcomes. This article focuses on promoting a culture of safety by highlighting five common avoidable error traps encountered while providing regional anesthesia for pediatric patients. They include failure to confirm intended block site, failure to optimize ultrasound images and identify artifacts, failure to recognize when regional anesthesia is an acceptable option, failure to implement alternative imaging techniques when anatomy is challenging, and failure to recognize disease states with abnormal anatomy that may require alternative blocks. These issues are easily addressed if the pediatric regionalist is cognizant of the appropriate ways to mitigate them, and, as such, we review strategies to avoid them.

Neurodevelopmental outcome at 5 years of age after general anaesthesia or awake-regional anaesthesia in infancy (GAS): an international, multicentre, randomised, controlled equivalence trial.

BACKGROUND: In laboratory animals, exposure to most general anaesthetics leads to neurotoxicity manifested by neuronal cell death and abnormal behaviour and cognition. Some large human cohort studies have shown an association between general anaesthesia at a young age and subsequent neurodevelopmental deficits, but these studies are prone to bias. Others have found no evidence for an association. We aimed to establish whether general anaesthesia in early infancy affects neurodevelopmental outcomes. METHODS: In this international, assessor-masked, equivalence, randomised, controlled trial conducted at 28 hospitals in Australia, Italy, the USA, the UK, Canada, the Netherlands, and New Zealand, we recruited infants of less than 60 weeks' postmenstrual age who were born at more than 26 weeks' gestation and were undergoing inguinal herniorrhaphy, without previous exposure to general anaesthesia or risk factors for neurological injury. Patients were randomly assigned (1:1) by use of a web-based randomisation service to receive either awake-regional anaesthetic or sevoflurane-based general anaesthetic. Anaesthetists were aware of group allocation, but individuals administering the neurodevelopmental assessments were not. Parents were informed of their infants group allocation upon request, but were told to mask this information from assessors. The primary outcome measure was full-scale intelligence quotient (FSIQ) on the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, third edition (WPPSI-III), at 5 years of age. The primary analysis was done on a per-protocol basis, adjusted for gestational age at birth and country, with multiple imputation used to account for missing data. An intention-to-treat analysis was also done. A difference in means of 5 points was predefined as the clinical equivalence margin. This completed trial is registered with ANZCTR, number ACTRN12606000441516, and ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT00756600. FINDINGS: Between Feb 9, 2007, and Jan 31, 2013, 4023 infants were screened and 722 were randomly allocated: 363 (50%) to the awake-regional anaesthesia group and 359 (50%) to the general anaesthesia group. There were 74 protocol violations in the awake-regional anaesthesia group and two in the general anaesthesia group. Primary outcome data for the per-protocol analysis were obtained from 205 children in the awake-regional anaesthesia group and 242 in the general anaesthesia group. The median duration of general anaesthesia was 54 min (IQR 41-70). The mean FSIQ score was 99·08 (SD 18·35) in the awake-regional anaesthesia group and 98·97 (19·66) in the general anaesthesia group, with a difference in means (awake-regional anaesthesia minus general anaesthesia) of 0·23 (95% CI -2·59 to 3·06), providing strong evidence of equivalence. The results of the intention-to-treat analysis were similar to those of the per-protocol analysis. INTERPRETATION: Slightly less than 1 h of general anaesthesia in early infancy does not alter neurodevelopmental outcome at age 5 years compared with awake-regional anaesthesia in a predominantly male study population. FUNDING: US National Institutes of Health, US Food and Drug Administration, Thrasher Research Fund, Australian National Health and Medical Research Council, Health Technologies Assessment-National Institute for Health Research (UK), Australian and New Zealand College of Anaesthetists, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Canadian Institutes of Health Research, Canadian Anesthesiologists Society, Pfizer Canada, Italian Ministry of Health, Fonds NutsOhra, UK Clinical Research Network, Perth Children's Hospital Foundation, the Stan Perron Charitable Trust, and the Callahan Estate.

Variation Between and Within Hospitals in Single Injection Caudal Local Anesthetic Dose: A Report From the Pediatric Regional Anesthesia Network.

BACKGROUND: Given that variation exists in health care utilization, expenditure, and medical practice, there is a paucity of data on variation within the practice of anesthesia. The Pediatric Regional Anesthesia Network (PRAN) data lend itself to explore whether different medical practice patterns exist and if there are nerve blocks with more local anesthetic dosing variation than others. The primary aim of this study was to quantify variation in single injection caudal block dosing, and the secondary aim was to explore possible causes for variation (eg, number of blocks performed versus geographic location). METHODS: We queried the PRAN database for single injection caudal blocks in children <1 year of age. Data were analyzed for local anesthetic dose, variation within and across institutions, and possible causes. RESULTS: Mean dose of bupivacaine equivalents per kilogram (BE·kg) among sites ranged from 1.39 to 2.22 with an interdecile range (IDR) containing the mid 80% of all doses ranging from 0.21 to 1.48. Mean dose (BE·kg) was associated with site, age, weight, and local anesthetic used (all P < .0001). Cohen's F effect size estimate was 10 times higher for site (0.65) than for age (0.05) or weight (0.02). Variation (IDR) was not related to number of blocks done at each site (P = .23). Mean volume per kilogram was 0.9± ± 0.2 (mean ± ±standard deviation) and was more strongly associated with site (Cohen's F 0.3) than age (0.04) or weight (0.07). CONCLUSIONS: Wide variation in caudal local anesthetic dosing and administered volume exists. This variation is independent of the number of cases performed at each center but rather is determined by study site (ie, variation between centers) with considerable additional variation within study centers, suggesting additional variability dependent on individual practitioners. While there are legitimate reasons to vary dosing, the current approach is inconsistent and not supported by strong evidence over giving a standardized dose.

Pediatric Airway Management in COVID-19 Patients: Consensus Guidelines From the Society for Pediatric Anesthesia's Pediatric Difficult Intubation Collaborative and the Canadian Pediatric Anesthesia Society.

The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (coronavirus disease 2019 [COVID-19]) pandemic has challenged medical systems and clinicians globally to unforeseen levels. Rapid spread of COVID-19 has forced clinicians to care for patients with a highly contagious disease without evidence-based guidelines. Using a virtual modified nominal group technique, the Pediatric Difficult Intubation Collaborative (PeDI-C), which currently includes 35 hospitals from 6 countries, generated consensus guidelines on airway management in pediatric anesthesia based on expert opinion and early data about the disease. PeDI-C identified overarching goals during care, including minimizing aerosolized respiratory secretions, minimizing the number of clinicians in contact with a patient, and recognizing that undiagnosed asymptomatic patients may shed the virus and infect health care workers. Recommendations include administering anxiolytic medications, intravenous anesthetic inductions, tracheal intubation using video laryngoscopes and cuffed tracheal tubes, use of in-line suction catheters, and modifying workflow to recover patients from anesthesia in the operating room. Importantly, PeDI-C recommends that anesthesiologists consider using appropriate personal protective equipment when performing aerosol-generating medical procedures in asymptomatic children, in addition to known or suspected children with COVID-19. Airway procedures should be done in negative pressure rooms when available. Adequate time should be allowed for operating room cleaning and air filtration between surgical cases. Research using rigorous study designs is urgently needed to inform safe practices during the COVID-19 pandemic. Until further information is available, PeDI-C advises that clinicians consider these guidelines to enhance the safety of health care workers during airway management when performing aerosol-generating medical procedures. These guidelines have been endorsed by the Society for Pediatric Anesthesia and the Canadian Pediatric Anesthesia Society.

Pediatric airway management education and training.

Education in medicine, informed by research findings, is moving away from the traditional apprenticeship model and increasingly embraces new, active learning methodologies. In this article, we will review these methodologies along with adult learning theories; we explore the available evidence on acquisition and maintenance of pediatric airway management skills, including technical and nontechnical skills. We recall the elements of a competency-based curriculum and how they can be applied in pediatric airway skill training and suggest mapping strategies based on research evidence. We propose future directions in education and educational research in the field.

Development and Usability Testing of the Society for Pediatric Anesthesia Pedi Crisis Mobile Application.

When life-threatening, critical events occur in the operating room, the fast-paced, high-distraction atmosphere often leaves little time to think or deliberate about management options. Success depends on applying a team approach to quickly implement well-rehearsed, systematic, evidence-based assessment and treatment protocols. Mobile devices offer resources for readily accessible, easily updatable information that can be invaluable during perioperative critical events. We developed a mobile device version of the Society for Pediatric Anesthesia 26 Pediatric Crisis paper checklists-the Pedi Crisis 2.0 application-as a resource to support clinician responses to pediatric perioperative life-threatening critical events. Human factors expertise and principles were applied to maximize usability, such as by clustering information into themes that clinicians utilize when accessing cognitive aids during critical events. The electronic environment allowed us to feature optional diagnostic support, optimized navigation, weight-based dosing, critical institution-specific phone numbers pertinent to emergency response, and accessibility for those who want larger font sizes. The design and functionality of the application were optimized for clinician use in real time during actual critical events, and it can also be used for self-study or review. Beta usability testing of the application was conducted with a convenience sample of clinicians at 9 institutions in 2 countries and showed that participants were able to find information quickly and as expected. In addition, clinicians rated the application as slightly above "excellent" overall on an established measure, the Systems Usability Scale, which is a 10-item, widely used and validated Likert scale created to assess usability for a variety of situations. The application can be downloaded, at no cost, for iOS devices from the Apple App Store and for Android devices from the Google Play Store. The processes and principles used in its development are readily applicable to the development of future mobile and electronic applications for the field of anesthesiology.

Complications in Pediatric Regional Anesthesia: An Analysis of More than 100,000 Blocks from the Pediatric Regional Anesthesia Network.

WHAT WE ALREADY KNOW ABOUT THIS TOPIC: WHAT THIS ARTICLE TELLS US THAT IS NEW: BACKGROUND:: Complications in pediatric regional anesthesia are rare, so a large sample size is necessary to quantify risk. The Pediatric Regional Anesthesia Network contains data on more than 100,000 blocks administered at more than 20 children's hospitals. This study analyzed the risk of major complications associated with regional anesthesia in children. METHODS: This is a prospective, observational study of routine clinical practice. Data were collected on every regional block placed by an anesthesiologist at participating institutions and were uploaded to a secure database. The data were audited at multiple points for accuracy. RESULTS: There were no permanent neurologic deficits reported (95% CI, 0 to 0.4:10,000). The risk of transient neurologic deficit was 2.4:10,000 (95% CI, 1.6 to 3.6:10,000) and was not different between peripheral and neuraxial blocks. The risk of severe local anesthetic systemic toxicity was 0.76:10,000 (95% CI, 0.3 to 1.6:10,000); the majority of cases occurred in infants. There was one epidural abscess reported (0.76:10,000, 95% CI, 0 to 4.8:10,000). The incidence of cutaneous infections was 0.5% (53:10,000, 95% CI, 43 to 64:10,000). There were no hematomas associated with neuraxial catheters (95% CI, 0 to 3.5:10,000), but one epidural hematoma occurred with a paravertebral catheter. No additional risk was observed with placing blocks under general anesthesia. The most common adverse events were benign catheter-related failures (4%). CONCLUSIONS: The data from this study demonstrate a level of safety in pediatric regional anesthesia that is comparable to adult practice and confirms the safety of placing blocks under general anesthesia in children.

Virtual reality for lumbar puncture in a morbidly obese patient with leukemia.

Virtual reality is an immersive technology that can provide distraction and anxiolysis during painful procedures. While it has been shown to be effective in less invasive procedures, it is underutilized in more invasive procedures. We describe using virtual reality for a morbidly obese patient with leukemia undergoing lumbar puncture. The use of virtual reality reduced the amount of analgesics and anxiolytics and the procedure and recovery times compared with no virtual reality.

Estimating pediatric general anesthesia exposure: Quantifying duration and risk.

INTRODUCTION: Understanding the duration of pediatric general anesthesia exposure in contemporary practice is important for identifying groups at risk for long general anesthesia exposures and designing trials examining associations between general anesthesia exposure and neurodevelopmental outcomes. METHODS: We performed a retrospective cohort analysis to estimate pediatric general anesthesia exposure duration during 2010-2015 using the National Anesthesia Clinical Outcomes Registry. RESULTS: A total of 1 548 021 pediatric general anesthetics were included. Median general anesthesia duration was 57 minutes (IQR: 28-86) with 90th percentile 145 minutes. Children aged <1 year had the longest median exposure duration (79 minutes, IQR: 39-119) with 90th percentile 210 minutes, and 13.7% of this very young cohort was exposed for >3 hours. High ASA physical status and care at a university hospital were associated with longer exposure times. CONCLUSION: While the vast majority (94%) of children undergoing general anesthesia are exposed for <3 hours, certain groups may be at increased risk for longer exposures. These findings may help guide the design of future trials aimed at understanding neurodevelopmental impact of prolonged exposure in these high-risk groups.

Pediatric tracheomalacia and the perioperative anesthetic management of thoracoscopic posterior tracheopexy.

Tracheomalacia is a broad term used to describe an abnormally compliant trachea that can lead to exaggerated collapse and obstruction with expiration. We describe the perioperative management of a complex pediatric patient undergoing a posterior tracheopexy which is a relatively new surgical treatment, with a novel surgical approach-thoracoscopy. This procedure has competing surgical and anesthetic needs and presents unique challenges to the physicians involved in caring for these patients. We also review the current literature on pediatric tracheomalacia and examine the newest treatment options to highlight the potential anesthetic challenges and pitfalls associated with management.

Neurodevelopmental outcome at 2 years of age after general anaesthesia and awake-regional anaesthesia in infancy (GAS): an international multicentre, randomised controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Preclinical data suggest that general anaesthetics affect brain development. There is mixed evidence from cohort studies that young children exposed to anaesthesia can have an increased risk of poor neurodevelopmental outcome. We aimed to establish whether general anaesthesia in infancy has any effect on neurodevelopmental outcome. Here we report the secondary outcome of neurodevelopmental outcome at 2 years of age in the General Anaesthesia compared to Spinal anaesthesia (GAS) trial. METHODS: In this international assessor-masked randomised controlled equivalence trial, we recruited infants younger than 60 weeks postmenstrual age, born at greater than 26 weeks' gestation, and who had inguinal herniorrhaphy, from 28 hospitals in Australia, Italy, the USA, the UK, Canada, the Netherlands, and New Zealand. Infants were randomly assigned (1:1) to receive either awake-regional anaesthesia or sevoflurane-based general anaesthesia. Web-based randomisation was done in blocks of two or four and stratified by site and gestational age at birth. Infants were excluded if they had existing risk factors for neurological injury. The primary outcome of the trial will be the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence Third Edition (WPPSI-III) Full Scale Intelligence Quotient score at age 5 years. The secondary outcome, reported here, is the composite cognitive score of the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development III, assessed at 2 years. The analysis was as per protocol adjusted for gestational age at birth. A difference in means of five points (1/3 SD) was predefined as the clinical equivalence margin. This trial is registered with ANZCTR, number ACTRN12606000441516 and ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT00756600. FINDINGS: Between Feb 9, 2007, and Jan 31, 2013, 363 infants were randomly assigned to receive awake-regional anaesthesia and 359 to general anaesthesia. Outcome data were available for 238 children in the awake-regional group and 294 in the general anaesthesia group. In the as-per-protocol analysis, the cognitive composite score (mean [SD]) was 98.6 (14.2) in the awake-regional group and 98.2 (14.7) in the general anaesthesia group. There was equivalence in mean between groups (awake-regional minus general anaesthesia 0.169, 95% CI -2.30 to 2.64). The median duration of anaesthesia in the general anaesthesia group was 54 min. INTERPRETATION: For this secondary outcome, we found no evidence that just less than 1 h of sevoflurane anaesthesia in infancy increases the risk of adverse neurodevelopmental outcome at 2 years of age compared with awake-regional anaesthesia. FUNDING: Australia National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC), Health Technologies Assessment-National Institute for Health Research UK, National Institutes of Health, Food and Drug Administration, Australian and New Zealand College of Anaesthetists, Murdoch Childrens Research Institute, Canadian Institute of Health Research, Canadian Anesthesiologists' Society, Pfizer Canada, Italian Ministry of Heath, Fonds NutsOhra, and UK Clinical Research Network (UKCRN).

Videolaryngoscopy versus Fiber-optic Intubation through a Supraglottic Airway in Children with a Difficult Airway: An Analysis from the Multicenter Pediatric Difficult Intubation Registry.

BACKGROUND: The success rates and related complications of various techniques for intubation in children with difficult airways remain unknown. The primary aim of this study is to compare the success rates of fiber-optic intubation via supraglottic airway to videolaryngoscopy in children with difficult airways. Our secondary aim is to compare the complication rates of these techniques. METHODS: Observational data were collected from 14 sites after management of difficult pediatric airways. Patient age, intubation technique, success per attempt, use of continuous ventilation, and complications were recorded for each case. First-attempt success and complications were compared in subjects managed with fiber-optic intubation via supraglottic airway and videolaryngoscopy. RESULTS: Fiber-optic intubation via supraglottic airway and videolaryngoscopy had similar first-attempt success rates (67 of 114, 59% vs. 404 of 786, 51%; odds ratio 1.35; 95% CI, 0.91 to 2.00; P = 0.16). In subjects less than 1 yr old, fiber-optic intubation via supraglottic airway was more successful on the first attempt than videolaryngoscopy (19 of 35, 54% vs. 79 of 220, 36%; odds ratio, 2.12; 95% CI, 1.04 to 4.31; P = 0.042). Complication rates were similar in the two groups (20 vs. 13%; P = 0.096). The incidence of hypoxemia was lower when continuous ventilation through the supraglottic airway was used throughout the fiber-optic intubation attempt. CONCLUSIONS: In this nonrandomized study, first-attempt success rates were similar for fiber-optic intubation via supraglottic airway and videolaryngoscopy. Fiber-optic intubation via supraglottic airway is associated with higher first-attempt success than videolaryngoscopy in infants with difficult airways. Continuous ventilation through the supraglottic airway during fiber-optic intubation attempts may lower the incidence of hypoxemia.