Purification and reconstitution of chloride channels from kidney and trachea.

Chloride channels mediate absorption and secretion of fluid in epithelia, and the regulation of these channels is now known to be defective in cystic fibrosis. Indanyl-oxyacetic acid 94 (IAA-94) is a high-affinity ligand for the chloride channel, and an affinity resin based on that structure was developed. Solubilized proteins from kidney and trachea membranes were applied to the affinity matrix, and four proteins with apparent molecular masses of 97, 64, 40, and 27 kilodaltons were eluted from the column by excess IAA-94. A potential-dependent 36Cl- uptake was observed after reconstituting these proteins into liposomes. Three types of chloride channels with single-channel conductances of 26, 100, and 400 picosiemens were observed after fusion of these liposomes with planar lipid bilayers. Similar types of chloride channels have been observed in epithelia.

Subcellular distribution and targeting of the intracellular chloride channel p64.

p64 is an intracellular chloride channel originally identified in bovine kidney microsomes. Using a combination of immunofluorescent and electron microscopic technique, we demonstrate that p64 resides in the limiting membranes of perinuclear dense core vesicles which appear to be regulated secretory vesicles. Heterologous expression of p64 in PancI cells, a cell type which does not normally express p64, results in targeting to a similar compartment. Mutagenesis experiments demonstrate that both the N- and C-terminal domains of the protein independently contribute to subcellular distribution of the protein. The C-terminal domain functions to prevent expression of p64 on the plasma membrane and the N-terminal domain is necessary to deliver p64 to the appropriate membrane compartment.

Ionic regulation of intracellular pH in rat calvarial osteoblasts.

1. Intracellular pH of cultured rat calvarial osteoblasts was monitored continuously using the pH-sensitive fluorescent probe bis-carboxyethyl carboxyfluorescein. 2. Recovery from an intracellular acid load brought about by exposure to ammonium chloride was dependent on external sodium and blocked by the sodium-hydrogen exchange inhibitor amiloride (1 mM), indicating the presence of a plasma membrane sodium-hydrogen exchanger. 3. A SITS- (4-acetamido-4'-isothiocyanostilbene-2,2'-disulphonic acid) sensitive alkalinization occurred on the isosmotic replacement of external chloride by gluconate, suggesting the presence of chloride-bicarbonate exchange. 4. The dependence of the rate of sodium-hydrogen exchange on external sodium followed first-order kinetics, but the rate of exchange appeared to be sensitive to intracellular pH. 5. The rate of alkalinization brought about by the isosmotic replacement of chloride was sensitive to external bicarbonate concentration, but independent of external sodium. 6. Sodium-hydrogen exchange appeared to be inhibited and chloride-bicarbonate exchange stimulated by 1-34 parathyroid hormone.

Control of intracellular pH in rat calvarial osteoblasts: coexistence of both chloride-bicarbonate and sodium-hydrogen exchange.

Intracellular pH was monitored continuously in cultured rat calvarial osteoblasts using the pH-sensitive fluorescent dye bis carboxyethyl carboxyfluorescein (BCECF), loaded into the cells as its membrane permeant ester. Recovery from an intracellular acid load generated by exposure to NH4Cl was unaffected by the anion exchange inhibitors 4-acetamido-4'-isothiocyanato-stilbene-2,2'-disuphonic acid (SITS) and 4,4'-diisothiocyanato-stilbene 2,2'-disuphonic acid (DIDS) (100 microM), but blocked by the sodium-hydrogen exchange inhibitor amiloride (1 mM) and dependent on external sodium, suggesting that recovery is brought about by a sodium-hydrogen exchanger in the plasma membrane. The cells do, however, possess a SITS-sensitive chloride-bicarbonate exchanger, because iso-osmotic replacement of chloride by gluconate leads to intracellular alkalinization, that is inhibited by SITS, but independent of external sodium. Parathyroid hormone brings about an intracellular acidification, which may be due to an inhibiton of sodium-hydrogen exchange.

A ubiquitous 64-kDa protein is a component of a chloride channel of plasma and intracellular membranes.

Chloride channels are present in the plasma and intracellular membranes of most cells. Previously, using the ligand indanyloxyacetic acid (IAA), we purified four major proteins from bovine kidney cortex membrane vesicles. These proteins gave rise to chloride channel activity when reconstituted into phospholipid vesicles. Two of these proteins (97 and 27 kDa) were found to be drug-binding proteins by N-terminal sequence analysis. Antibodies raised to the 64-kDa protein stained only this protein on immunoblots, and only this protein was present after purification on an immunoaffinity column. In addition, these same antibodies were able to deplete IAA-94 inhibitable chloride channel activity from solubilized kidney membranes. Of fractions obtained from the gel filtration of solubilized kidney membranes, only those containing this 64-kDa protein exhibited measurable chloride channel activity. Immunoblots of a variety of species and cell types, both epithelial and nonepithelial, revealed that this protein is ubiquitous and highly conserved. Immunocytochemistry in CFPAC-1 cells revealed staining for this protein on the apical plasma membrane and in the membranes of intracellular organelles. These results demonstrate that the integral membrane protein p64 is a component of chloride channels present in both epithelial plasma membrane and the membranes of intracellular organelles.

Identification and modulation of a voltage-dependent anion channel in the plasma membrane of guard cells by high-affinity ligands.

Guard cell anion channels (GCAC1) catalyze the release of anions across the plasma membrane during regulated volume decrease and also seem to be involved in the targeting of the plant growth hormones auxins. We have analyzed the modulation and inhibition of these voltage-dependent anion channels by different anion channel blockers. Ethacrynic acid, a structural correlate of an auxin, caused a shift in activation potential and simultaneously a transient increase in the peak current amplitude, whereas other blockers shifted and blocked the voltage-dependent activity of the channel. Comparison of dose-response curves for shift and block imposed by the inhibitor, indicate two different sites within the channel which interact with the ligand. The capability to inhibit GCAC1 increases in a dose-dependent manner in the sequence: probenecid less than A-9-C less than ethacrynic acid less than niflumic acid less than IAA-94 less than NPPB. All inhibitors reversibly blocked the anion channel from the extracellular side. Channel block on the level of single anion channels is characterized by a reduction of long open transitions into flickering bursts, indicating an interaction with the open mouth of the channel. IAA-23, a structural analog of IAA-94, was used to enrich ligand-binding polypeptides from the plasma membrane of guard cells by IAA-23 affinity chromatography. From this protein fraction a 60 kDa polypeptide crossreacted specifically with polyclonal antibodies raised against anion channels isolated from kidney membranes. In contrast to guard cells, mesophyll plasma membranes were deficient in voltage-dependent anion channels and lacked crossreactivity with the antibody.

Molecular cloning and characterization of p64, a chloride channel protein from kidney microsomes.

Chloride channels were previously purified from bovine kidney cortex membranes using a drug affinity column. Reconstitution of the purified proteins into artificial liposomes and planar bilayers yielded chloride channels. A 64-kDa protein, p64, identified as a component of this chloride channel was used to generate antibodies which depleted solubilized kidney membranes of all chloride channel activity. This antibody has now been used to identify a clone, H2B, from a kidney cDNA library. Antibodies, affinity-purified against the fusion protein of H2B also depleted solubilized kidney cortex from all chloride channel activity. The predicted amino acid sequence of p64 shows that it contains two and possibly four putative transmembrane domains and potential phosphorylation sites by protein kinase A, protein kinase C, and casein kinase II. There was no significant homology to other protein (or DNA) sequences in the data base. The protein is expressed in all cells tested. Expression of its mRNA in Xenopus laevis oocytes led to the insertion of a protein with the appropriate molecular mass in microsomes but not in the plasma membrane. It is likely that p64 represents the chloride channel of intracellular organelles.