Photodynamic therapy with redaporfin targets the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus.

Preclinical evidence depicts the capacity of redaporfin (Redp) to act as potent photosensitizer, causing direct antineoplastic effects as well as indirect immune-dependent destruction of malignant lesions. Here, we investigated the mechanisms through which photodynamic therapy (PDT) with redaporfin kills cancer cells. Subcellular localization and fractionation studies based on the physicochemical properties of redaporfin revealed its selective tropism for the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and the Golgi apparatus (GA). When activated, redaporfin caused rapid reactive oxygen species-dependent perturbation of ER/GA compartments, coupled to ER stress and an inhibition of the GA-dependent secretory pathway. This led to a general inhibition of protein secretion by PDT-treated cancer cells. The ER/GA play a role upstream of mitochondria in the lethal signaling pathway triggered by redaporfin-based PDT Pharmacological perturbation of GA function or homeostasis reduces mitochondrial permeabilization. In contrast, removal of the pro-apoptotic multidomain proteins BAX and BAK or pretreatment with protease inhibitors reduced cell killing, yet left the GA perturbation unaffected. Altogether, these results point to the capacity of redaporfin to kill tumor cells via destroying ER/GA function.

Combining the oncolytic peptide LTX-315 with doxorubicin demonstrates therapeutic potential in a triple-negative breast cancer model.

BACKGROUND: Immunochemotherapy, the combined use of immunotherapy and chemotherapy, has demonstrated great promise in several cancers. LTX-315 is an oncolytic peptide with potent immunomodulatory properties designed for the local treatment of solid tumors. By inducing rapid immunogenic cell death through the release of danger-associated molecular pattern molecules (DAMPs), LTX-315 is capable of reshaping the tumor microenvironment, turning "cold" tumors "hot" through a significant increase in tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes. METHODS: We investigated the potential of LTX-315 to be used in combination with standard-of-care chemotherapy (doxorubicin, brand name CAELYX®) against triple-negative breast cancer in an orthotopic 4 T1 mammary fat pad model. Tumor growth curves were compared using one-way ANOVA analysis of variance and Tukey's multiple comparisons test, and animal survival curves were compared using the log-rank (Mantel-Cox) test. We considered p values ≤0.05 to indicate statistical significance. RESULTS: We found that LTX-315 displayed a strong additive antitumoral effect when used in combination with CAELYX®, and induced immune-mediated changes in the tumor microenvironment, followed by complete regression in the majority of animals treated. Furthermore, imaging techniques and histological examination showed that the combination induced strong local necrosis, followed by an increase in the infiltration of CD4+ and CD8+ immune cells into the tumor parenchymal tissue. CONCLUSIONS: Our data demonstrate that LTX-315 is a promising combination partner with CAELYX® for the treatment of triple-negative breast cancer.

A novel rat fibrosarcoma cell line from transformed bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells with maintained in vitro and in vivo stemness properties.

Increasing evidence suggests a possible relationship between mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and sarcoma. MSCs are hypothesized to be the cells initiating sarcomagenesis, and cancer stem cells (CSCs) sharing features of MSCs have been identified in sarcomas. Here, we report on the characteristics of a bone marrow-derived rat mesenchymal stem cell line that spontaneously transformed in long-term culture. The rat transformed mesenchymal stem cells (rTMSCs) produced soft-tissue fibrosarcomas in immunocompromised mice and immunocompetent rats. In vitro, the rTMSCs displayed increased proliferation capacity compared to the untransformed cell line. The transformed MSCs maintained the mesenchymal phenotype by expression of the stem cell marker CD 90 and the lack of hematopoietic and endothelial markers. Cytogenetic analysis detected trisomy 6 in the rTMSCs. Side population (SP) isolation and tumorsphere cultivation of the transformed cells confirmed the presence of CSCs among the rTMSCs. Importantly, the rTMSCs retained their differentiation capacity towards osteogenic and adipogenic lineages. This transformed MSC-based cell line may be valuable in examining the balance in a mixed cell population between cancer stem cell properties and the ability to differentiate to specific non-transformed cell populations. Moreover, it may also be a useful tool to evaluate the efficacy of novel targeted immunotherapies in vivo.

Complete regression and systemic protective immune responses obtained in B16 melanomas after treatment with LTX-315.

Malignant melanoma is the most aggressive and deadliest form of skin cancer due to its highly metastatic potential, which calls for new and improved therapies. Cationic antimicrobial peptides (CAPs) are naturally occurring molecules found in most species, in which they play a significant role in the first line of defense against pathogens, and several CAPs have shown promising potential as novel anticancer agents. Structure-activity relationship studies on the CAP bovine lactoferricin allowed us to de novo design short chemically modified lytic anticancer peptides. In the present study, we investigated the in vivo antitumor effects of LTX-315 against intradermally established B16 melanomas in syngeneic mice. Intratumoral administration of LTX-315 resulted in tumor necrosis and the infiltration of immune cells into the tumor parenchyma followed by complete regression of the tumor in the majority of the animals. LTX-315 induced the release of danger-associated molecular pattern molecules such as the high mobility group box-1 protein in vitro and the subsequent upregulation of proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin (IL) 1ß, IL6 and IL18 in vivo. Animals cured by LTX-315 treatment were protected against a re-challenge with live B16 tumor cells both intradermally and intravenously. Together, our data indicate that intratumoral treatment with LTX-315 can provide local tumor control followed by protective immune responses and has potential as a new immunotherapeutic agent.

LTX-315 triggers anticancer immunity by inducing MyD88-dependent maturation of dendritic cells.

LTX-315 is a synthetic cationic oncolytic peptide with potent anticancer activity but limited toxicity for non-malignant cells. LTX-315 induces both immunogenic tumor cell death and generation of tumor-specific immune responses in multiple experimental tumor models. Given the central role of dendritic cell (DC) maturation in the induction of antigen-specific immunity, we investigated the effect of LTX-315 treatment on the maturation of tumor-infiltrating DCs (TiDCs) and the generation of anti-melanoma immunity. We found that LTX-315 treatment induces the maturation of DCs, both indirectly through the release of cancer cell-derived damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs)/alarmins and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) capable of triggering distinct Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling, and, directly by activating TLR7. The latter results in the ignition of multiple intracellular signaling pathways that promotes DC maturation, including NF-κB, mitogen activated protein kinases (MAPKs), and inflammasome signaling, as well as increased type 1 interferon production. Critically, the effects of LTX-315 on DCs the consequent promotion of anti-melanoma immunity depend on the cytosolic signal transducer myeloid differentiation response gene 88 (MyD88). These results cast light on the mechanisms by which LTX-315 induces DC maturation and hence elicits anticancer immunity, with important implications for the use of LTX-315 as an anticancer immunotherapeutic.

LTX-315 and adoptive cell therapy using tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes generate tumor specific T cells in patients with metastatic soft tissue sarcoma.

LTX-315 is an oncolytic peptide that elicits both local and systemic immune responses upon intratumoral injection. In the present pilot trial, we treated patients with metastatic soft tissue sarcoma with the combination of LTX-315 and adoptive T-cell therapy using in vitro expanded tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes. Six heavily pretreated patients were included in the trial and treated with LTX-315 of which four patients proceeded to adoptive T-cell therapy. Overall, the treatment was considered safe with only expected and manageable toxicity. The best overall clinical response was stable disease for 208 days, and in this patient, we detected tumor-reactive T cells in the blood that lasted until disease progression. In three patients T-cell reactivity against in silico predicted neoantigens was demonstrated. Additionally, de novo T-cell clones were generated and expanded in the blood following LTX-315 injections. In conclusion, this pilot study provides proof that it is feasible to combine LTX-315 and adoptive T-cell therapy, and that this treatment can induce systemic immune responses that resulted in stabilization of the disease in sarcoma patients with otherwise progressive disease. Further optimization of the treatment protocol is warranted to increase clinical activity. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03725605.

Relative spatial positions of tryptophan and cationic residues in helical membrane-active peptides determine their cytotoxicity.

The cytotoxic activity of 10 analogs of the idealized amphipathic helical 21-mer peptide (KAAKKAA)3, where three of the Ala residues at different positions have been replaced with Trp residues, has been investigated. The peptide's cytotoxic activity was found to be markedly dependent upon the position of the Trp residues within the hydrophobic sector of an idealized α-helix. The peptides with Trp residues located opposite the cationic sector displayed no antitumor activity, whereas those peptides with two or three Trp residues located adjacent to the cationic sector exhibited high cytotoxic activity when tested against three different cancer cell lines. Dye release experiments revealed that in contrast to the peptides with Trp residues located opposite the cationic sector, the peptides with Trp residues located adjacent to the cationic sector induced a strong permeabilizing activity from liposomes composed of a mixture of zwitterionic phosphatidylcholine and negatively charged phosphatidylserine (1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POPC)/1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-l-serine (POPS)) (2:1) but not from liposomes composed of zwitterionic phosphatidylcholine, POPC. Fluorescence blue shift and quenching experiments revealed that Trp residues inserted deeper into the hydrophobic environment of POPC/POPS liposomes for peptides with high cytotoxic activity. Through circular dichroism studies, a correlation between the cytotoxic activity and the α-helical propensity was established. Structural studies of one inactive and two active peptides in the presence of micelles using NMR spectroscopy showed that only the active peptides adopted highly coiled to helical structures when bound to a membrane surface.

The proteoglycan repertoire of lymphoid cells.

Proteoglycans have been studied to a limited extent in lymphoid cells. In this study we have investigated the expression of proteoglycans in B-cells, CD4+ T-cells, CD8+ T-cells, natural killer cells, as well as in nine different cell lines established from patients with lymphoid malignancies. Serglycin was the major proteoglycan expressed at mRNA level by the primary lymphocytes. None of the syndecans or glycpicans was detected at mRNA level in the primary lymphocytes, except for syndecan-4 in CD4+ T-cells and CD8+ T-cells. All lymphoid cell lines expressed serglycin mRNA, as well as one or several members of the syndecan and glypican families. Further, increased synthesis of proteoglycans was found in the cell lines compared to the primary lymphocytes, as well as the presence of heparan sulfate on the cell surface of five of the cells lines. Western blot analysis showed a close correlation between serglycin mRNA level and expression of serglycin core protein. Our results show that serglycin is a major proteoglycan in all the normal lymphoid cells and that these cells carry little, or none, proteoglycans on the cell surface. Serglycin was also a major proteoglycan in the malignant lymphoid cells, but these also expressed one or more types of cell surface proteoglycans. Thus, malignant transformation of lymphoid cells may be followed by increased synthesis of proteoglycans and expression of cell surface proteoglycans.

Small lytic peptides escape the inhibitory effect of heparan sulfate on the surface of cancer cells.

BACKGROUND: Several naturally occurring cationic antimicrobial peptides (CAPs), including bovine lactoferricin (LfcinB), display promising anticancer activities. These peptides are unaffected by multidrug resistance mechanisms and have been shown to induce a protective immune response against solid tumors, thus making them interesting candidates for developing novel lead structures for anticancer treatment. Recently, we showed that the anticancer activity by LfcinB was inhibited by the presence of heparan sulfate (HS) on the surface of tumor cells. Based on extensive structure-activity relationship studies performed on LfcinB, shorter and more potent peptides have been constructed. In the present study, we have investigated the anticancer activity of three chemically modified 9-mer peptides and the influence of HS and chondroitin sulfate (CS) on their cytotoxic activity. METHODS: Various cell lines and red blood cells were used to investigate the anticancer activity and selectivity of the peptides. The cytotoxic effect of the peptides against the different cell lines was measured by use of a colorimetric MTT viability assay. The influence of HS and CS on their cytotoxic activity was evaluated by using HS/CS expressing and HS/CS deficient cell lines. The ability of soluble HS and CS to inhibit the cytotoxic activity of the peptides and the peptides' affinity for HS and CS were also investigated. RESULTS: The 9-mer peptides displayed selective anticancer activity. Cells expressing HS/CS were equally or more susceptible to the peptides than cells not expressing HS/CS. The peptides displayed a higher affinity for HS compared to CS, and exogenously added HS inhibited the cytotoxic effect of the peptides. CONCLUSIONS: In contrast to the previously reported inhibitory effect of HS on LfcinB, the present study shows that the cytotoxic activity of small lytic peptides was increased or not affected by cell surface HS.

Targeting Cancer Heterogeneity with Immune Responses Driven by Oncolytic Peptides.

Accumulating preclinical and clinical evidence indicates that high degrees of heterogeneity among malignant cells constitute a considerable obstacle to the success of cancer therapy. This calls for the development of approaches that operate - or enable established treatments to operate - despite such intratumoral heterogeneity (ITH). In this context, oncolytic peptides stand out as promising therapeutic tools based on their ability to drive immunogenic cell death associated with robust anticancer immune responses independently of ITH. We review the main molecular and immunological pathways engaged by oncolytic peptides, and discuss potential approaches to combine these agents with modern immunotherapeutics in support of superior tumor-targeting immunity and efficacy in patients with cancer.

Oncolytic peptides DTT-205 and DTT-304 induce complete regression and protective immune response in experimental murine colorectal cancer.

Oncolytic peptides represent a novel, promising cancer treatment strategy with activity in a broad spectrum of cancer entities, including colorectal cancer (CRC). Cancer cells are killed by immunogenic cell death, causing long-lasting anticancer immune responses, a feature of particular interest in non-immunogenic CRC. Oncolytic peptides DTT-205 and DTT-304 were administered by intratumoral injection in subcutaneous tumors established from murine CRC cell lines CT26 and MC38, and complete regression was obtained in the majority of animals. When cured animals were rechallenged by splenic injection of tumor cells, 1/23 animals developed liver metastases, compared to 19/22 naïve animals. Treatment with both peptides was well tolerated, but monitoring post-injection hemodynamic parameters in rats, less extensive changes were observed with DTT-205 than DTT-304, favoring DTT-205 for future drug development. DTT-205 was subsequently shown to have strong in vitro activity in a panel of 33 cancer cell lines. In conclusion, both peptides exerted a strong inhibitory effect in two immunocompetent CRC models and induced a systemic effect preventing development of liver metastases upon splenic rechallenge. If a similar effect could be obtained in humans, these drugs would be of particular interest for combinatory treatment with immune checkpoint inhibitors in metastatic CRC.

LTX-315-enabled, radiotherapy-boosted immunotherapeutic control of breast cancer by NK cells.

LTX-315 is a nonameric oncolytic peptide in early clinical development for the treatment of solid malignancies. Preclinical and clinical evidence indicates that the anticancer properties of LTX-315 originate not only from its ability to selectively kill cancer cells, but also from its capacity to promote tumor-targeting immune responses. Here, we investigated the therapeutic activity and immunological correlates of intratumoral LTX-315 administration in three syngeneic mouse models of breast carcinoma, with a focus on the identification of possible combinatorial partners. We found that breast cancer control by LTX-315 is accompanied by a reconfiguration of the immunological tumor microenvironment that supports the activation of anticancer immunity and can be boosted by radiation therapy. Mechanistically, depletion of natural killer (NK) cells compromised the capacity of LTX-315 to limit local and systemic disease progression in a mouse model of triple-negative breast cancer, and to extend the survival of mice bearing hormone-accelerated, carcinogen-driven endogenous mammary carcinomas. Altogether, our data suggest that LTX-315 controls breast cancer progression by engaging NK cell-dependent immunity.

Safety, Antitumor Activity, and T-cell Responses in a Dose-Ranging Phase I Trial of the Oncolytic Peptide LTX-315 in Patients with Solid Tumors.

PURPOSE: LTX-315 is a first-in-class, 9-mer membranolytic peptide that has shown potent immunomodulatory properties in preclinical models. We conducted a phase I dose-escalating study of intratumoral LTX-315 administration in patients with advanced solid tumors. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Thirty-nine patients were enrolled, receiving LTX-315 injections into accessible tumors. The primary objective was to assess the safety and tolerability of this approach, with antitumor and immunomodulatory activity as secondary objectives. Tumor biopsies were collected at baseline and posttreatment for analysis of immunologic parameters. RESULTS: The most common treatment-related grade 1-2 adverse events were vascular disorders including transient hypotension (18 patients, 46%), flushing (11 patients, 28%), and injection site reactions in 38% of patients. The most common grade 3 LTX-315-related toxicities were hypersensitivity or anaphylaxis (4 patients, 10%). Analysis of immune endpoints in serial biopsies indicated that LTX-315 induces necrosis and CD8+ T-cell infiltration into the tumor microenvironment. Sequencing of the T-cell receptor repertoire in peripheral blood identified significant expansion of T-cell clones after treatment, of which 49% were present in available tumor biopsies after treatment, suggesting that they were tumor associated. Substantial volume reduction (≥30%) of injected tumors occurred in 29% of the patients, and 86% (12/14 biopsies) had an increase in intralesional CD8+ T cells posttreatment. No partial responses by immune-related response criteria were seen, but evidence of abscopal effect was demonstrated following treatment with LTX-315. CONCLUSIONS: LTX-315 has an acceptable safety profile, is clinically active, induces changes in the tumor microenvironment and contributes to immune-mediated anticancer activity.

Therapeutic vaccination against a murine lymphoma by intratumoral injection of a cationic anticancer peptide.

Cationic antimicrobial peptides (CAPs) exhibit promising anticancer activities. In the present study, we have examined the in vivo antitumoral effects of a 9-mer peptide, LTX-302, which is derived from the CAP bovine lactoferricin (LfcinB). A20 B cell lymphomas of BALB/c origin were established by subcutaneous inoculation in syngeneic mice. Intratumoral LTX-302 injection resulted in tumor necrosis and infiltration of inflammatory cells followed by complete regression of the tumors in the majority of the animals. This effect was T cell dependent, since the intervention was inefficient in nude mice. Successfully treated mice were protected against rechallenge with A20 cells, but not against Meth A sarcoma cells. Tumor resistance could be adoptively transferred with spleen cells from LTX-302-treated mice. Resistance was abrogated by depletion of T lymphocytes, or either the CD4(+) or CD8(+) T cell subsets. Taken together, these data suggest that LTX-302 treatment induced long-term, specific cellular immunity against the A20 lymphoma and that both CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells were required. Thus, intratumoral administration of lytic peptide might, in addition to providing local tumor control, confer a novel strategy for therapeutic vaccination against cancer.

Selective Intracellular Delivery of Thiolated Cargo to Tumor and Neovasculature Cells Using Histidine-Rich Peptides as Vectors.

Short histidine-rich peptides could serve as novel activatable vectors for delivering cytotoxic payloads to tumor and neovasculature cells. This explorative study reports preliminary results showing that zinc ions, which are found in elevated levels at neovasculature sites, can trigger the intracellular delivery of a short antimicrobial peptide when conjugated to a histidine-rich peptide through a disulfide bond. The importance of exofacial thiols in the mode of action of these disulfide-linked conjugates is also shown.

Consensus guidelines for the definition, detection and interpretation of immunogenic cell death.

Cells succumbing to stress via regulated cell death (RCD) can initiate an adaptive immune response associated with immunological memory, provided they display sufficient antigenicity and adjuvanticity. Moreover, multiple intracellular and microenvironmental features determine the propensity of RCD to drive adaptive immunity. Here, we provide an updated operational definition of immunogenic cell death (ICD), discuss the key factors that dictate the ability of dying cells to drive an adaptive immune response, summarize experimental assays that are currently available for the assessment of ICD in vitro and in vivo, and formulate guidelines for their interpretation.

The anticancer activity of lytic peptides is inhibited by heparan sulfate on the surface of the tumor cells.

BACKGROUND: Cationic antimicrobial peptides (CAPs) with antitumor activity constitute a promising group of novel anticancer agents. These peptides induce lysis of cancer cells through interactions with the plasma membrane. It is not known which cancer cell membrane components influence their susceptibility to CAPs. We have previously shown that CAPs interact with the two glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), heparan sulfate (HS) and chondroitin sulfate (CS), which are present on the surface of most cells. The purpose of this study was to investigate the role of the two GAGs in the cytotoxic activity of CAPs. METHODS: Various cell lines, expressing different levels of cell surface GAGs, were exposed to bovine lactoferricin (LfcinB) and the designer peptide, KW5. The cytotoxic effect of the peptides was investigated by use of the colorimetric MTT viability assay. The cytotoxic effect on wild type CHO cells, expressing normal amounts of GAGs on the cell surface, and the mutant pgsA-745, that has no expression of GAGs on the cell surface, was also investigated. RESULTS: We show that cells not expressing HS were more susceptible to CAPs than cells expressing HS at the cell surface. Further, exogenously added heparin inhibited the cytotoxic effect of the peptides. Chondroitin sulfate had no effect on the cytotoxic activity of KW5 and only minor effects on LfcinB cytotoxicity. CONCLUSION: Our results show for the first time that negatively charged molecules at the surface of cancer cells inhibit the cytotoxic activity of CAPs. Our results indicate that HS at the surface of cancer cells sequesters CAPs away from the phospholipid bilayer and thereby impede their ability to induce cytolysis.

Enhanced T-lymphocyte infiltration in a desmoid tumor of the thoracic wall in a young woman treated with intratumoral injections of the oncolytic peptide LTX-315: a case report.

BACKGROUND: Desmoid tumors are intermediary malignant, fibrous lesions occurring in various soft tissues. Surgical treatment is relentlessly challenging because of the propensity for local aggressive behavior and high risk of recurrence. Consequently, a wide range of oncological drugs and radiation therapy are being used; however, outcomes are unpredictable. We investigated whether local treatment with an oncolytic peptide could be beneficial in a patient with an unresectable desmoid tumor. CASE PRESENTATION: In a young 29-year-old Caucasian woman who was diagnosed with a retromammary desmoid tumor infiltrating deeply into the anterior thoracic wall, surgery was considered excessively mutilating, and observation was recommended. The lesion progressed, however, and caused debilitating pain, despite nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medication. Subcutaneous injections of human interferon-α (Multiferon®) resulted in reduced growth kinetics but had to be terminated because of development of symptomatic pneumonitis. Frequently used oncological treatment was withheld because of the toxicity profile, and the patient was instead included in a phase I study investigating transdermal intratumoral injection of LTX-315, an oncolytic peptide that induces anticancer immune responses ( ClinicalTrials.gov , NCT01986426 ). A marked increase of CD8+ tumor-infiltrating T cells in the lesion was complemented by upregulation of immune gene signature (including effector T-cell, T-helper type 1 cell, chemokine, and cytokine genes). These changes were followed by gradual symptom relief and long-term disease stabilization, indicating clinical benefit. LTX-315 was well tolerated until termination in week 16 after a serious allergic reaction. CONCLUSIONS: Our patient was treated with repeated intratumoral injections of LTX-315, resulting in tumor regression accompanied by upregulation of immune genes and T-cell infiltration. Local application of immunotherapy, minimizing systemic side effects, represents a novel treatment modality in desmoid tumors that should be tested in further clinical trials.

The Novel Oncolytic Compound LTX-401 Induces Antitumor Immune Responses in Experimental Hepatocellular Carcinoma.

LTX-401 is a novel oncolytic compound designed for the local treatment of solid tumors. In the present study, we have examined the applicability and efficacy of LTX-401 in a rat model JM1 hepatocellular carcinoma, with particular interest in its ability to induce antitumor immunity. LTX-401 induces necrotic cell death followed by the release of immunogenic cell death mediators such as high-mobility group box 1 protein, ATP, and cytochrome c. When injected into subcutaneous and orthotopic JM1 tumors, LTX-401 treatment resulted in a strong antitumoral effect followed by complete tumor regression in the majority of animals. Additionally, LTX-401 could affect the growth of distal tumor deposits simulating metastases, hence indicating immune-mediated abscopal responses. Furthermore, LTX-401 treatment induced tumor-specific immune responses as seen by protection against tumor rechallenge and increased production of interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) by splenic cells in response to stimulation with tumor cells. Taken together, our data demonstrate that the oncolytic compound LTX-401 provides local tumor control followed by protective immune responses and may be exploited as a novel immunotherapeutic agent in hepatocellular carcinoma.

Recruitment of LC3 to damaged Golgi apparatus.

LC3 is a protein that can associate with autophagosomes, autolysosomes, and phagosomes. Here, we show that LC3 can also redistribute toward the damaged Golgi apparatus where it clusters with SQSTM1/p62 and lysosomes. This organelle-specific relocation, which did not involve the generation of double-membraned autophagosomes, could be observed after Golgi damage was induced by various strategies, namely (i) laser-induced localized cellular damage, (ii) local expression of peroxidase and exposure to peroxide and diaminobenzidine, (iii) treatment with the Golgi-tropic photosensitizer redaporfin and light, (iv) or exposure to the Golgi-tropic anticancer peptidomimetic LTX-401. Mechanistic exploration led to the conclusion that both reactive oxygen species-dependent and -independent Golgi damage induces a similar phenotype that depended on ATG5 yet did not depend on phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase catalytic subunit type 3 and Beclin-1. Interestingly, knockout of ATG5 sensitized cells to Golgi damage-induced cell death, suggesting that the pathway culminating in the relocation of LC3 to the damaged Golgi may have a cytoprotective function.