When simplicity triumphs: niche specialization of gut bacteria exists even for simple fiber structures.

Structurally complex corn bran arabinoxylan (CAX) was used as a model glycan to investigate gut bacteria growth and competition on different AX-based fine structures. Nine hydrolyzate segments of the CAX polymer varying in chemical structure (sugars and linkages), CAX, five less complex non-corn arabinoxylans, and xylose and glucose were ranked from structurally complex to simple. The substrate panel promoted different overall growth and rates of growth of eight Bacteroides xylan-degrading strains. For example, Bacteroides cellulosilyticus DSM 14838 (Bacteroides cellulosilyticus) grew well on an array of complex and simple structures, while Bacteroides ovatus 3-1-23 grew well only on the simple structures. In a competition experiment, B. cellulosilyticus growth was favored over B. ovatus on the complex AX-based structure. On the other hand, on the simple structure, B. ovatus strongly outcompeted B. cellulosilyticus, which was eliminated from the competitive environment by Day 11. This adaptation to fine structure and resulting competition dynamics indicate that dietary fiber chemical structures, whether complex or simple, favor certain gut bacteria. Overall, this work supports a concept that fiber degraders diversify their competitive abilities to access substrates across the spectrum of heterogeneity of fine structural features of dietary fibers.

Structural analysis of succinoglycan oligosaccharides from Sinorhizobium meliloti strains with different host compatibility phenotypes.

Sinorhizobium meliloti NRG247 has a Fix(+) phenotype on Medicago truncatula A20 and is Fix(-) on M. truncatula A17, and the phenotype is reversed with S. meliloti NRG185. As the succinoglycan was shown to impact host specificity, an analysis of the succinoglycan oligosaccharides produced by each strain was conducted. The symbiotically active succinoglycan trimeric oligosaccharides (STOs) from the two S. meliloti strains were compared by chromatography and mass spectrometry, and the analysis of the S. meliloti NRG247 oligosaccharides showed that this strain produces an abundance of STO trimer 1 (T1), containing no succinate (i.e., three nonsuccinylated repeats), yet the low-molecular-weight pool contained no nonsuccinylated monomers (potential repeats). This showed that STO T1 is likely to be the active signal on M. truncatula A20 and that the biosynthesis of the STOs is not a random polymerization of the monomer population. The results also suggest that the fully succinylated STO T7 is required for the infection of M. truncatula A17.

Differences in fine arabinoxylan structures govern microbial selection and competition among human gut microbiota.

Dietary fibers are known to modulate microbiome composition, but it is unclear to what extent minor fiber structural differences impact community assembly, microbial division of labor, and organismal metabolic responses. To test the hypothesis that fine linkage variations afford different ecological niches for distinct communities and metabolism, we employed a 7-day in vitro sequential batch fecal fermentation with four fecal inocula and measured responses using an integrated multi-omics approach. Two sorghum arabinoxylans (SAXs) were fermented, with one (RSAX) having slightly more complex branch linkages than the other (WSAX). Although there were minor glycoysl linkage differences, consortia on RSAX retained much higher species diversity (42 members) than on WSAX (18-23 members) with distinct species-level genomes and metabolic outcomes (e.g., higher short chain fatty acid production from RSAX and more lactic acid produced from WSAX). The major SAX-selected members were from genera of Bacteroides and Bifidobacterium and family Lachnospiraceae. Carbohydrate active enzyme (CAZyme) genes in metagenomes revealed broad AX-related hydrolytic potentials among key members; however, CAZyme genes enriched in different consortia displayed various catabolic domain fusions with diverse accessory motifs that differ among the two SAX types. These results suggest that fine polysaccharide structure exerts deterministic selection effect for distinct fermenting consortia.

Corn arabinoxylan has a repeating structure of subunits of high branch complexity with slow gut microbiota fermentation.

Corn arabinoxylan (CAX), a cell wall-derived dietary fiber, was extracted with alkali, partially purified, and treated with hydrolytic enzymes in order to investigate the relationship of fine structure and fermentability by the human gut microbiota. Glycosyl composition and linkage analysis of CAX and two hydrolysates, coupled with molecular size analysis, indicated an organized structural feature of the native polymer, which consists of a repeating structural subunit containing complex branching patterns along the xylan backbone and flanked by regions of less complexity. The two lengths of the highly branched subunit were isolated and were shown to have enhanced slow fermentation property compared to the native structure (3.3 vs. 5.9 mL gas, 4 h), that was related to increasing complexity of the branched structures. Lower molecular size structures with higher branch complexity fermented slower, contrary to a conventional view that small fiber structures approaching the oligosaccharide level are necessarily more rapidly fermented.

Comparative Study on Kernel Quality and Chemical Composition of Ancient and Modern Wheat Species: Einkorn, Emmer, Spelt and Hard Red Spring Wheat.

Hulled wheat species are often used as whole grains in processing, and have been attracting attention in the last 20 years in the food industry. Whole wheat flour of hulled wheat can be used in the food industry for value addition. This study was conducted to evaluate the kernel quality and chemical composition of the whole grain flour of hulled wheats as a preliminary approach to use these species for value addition. The experimental design was separate, randomized complete block designs for einkorn, emmer, and spelt, with four field replicates. According to the results, significant differences (p < 0.05) were observed in kernel quality traits, such as test weight, 1000 kernel weight, and kernel hardness, compared to hard red spring wheat. The results of the chemical composition revealed that hulled wheats were characterized by significantly lower (p < 0.05) protein and higher (p < 0.05) crude fat contents compared to whole wheat flour of hard red spring wheat. Among hulled wheats, total dietary fiber content was highest in emmer, followed by einkorn and spelt. In conclusion, the whole wheat flour of einkorn, emmer, and spelt used in this study differ from hard red spring wheat in their kernel quality and chemical composition.

Starch with a slow digestion property produced by altering its chain length, branch density, and crystalline structure.

The hypothesis of increasing the branch density of starch to reduce its digestion rate through partial shortening of amylopectin exterior chains and the length of amylose was investigated. Starch products prepared using beta-amylase, beta-amylase and transglucosidase, maltogenic alpha-amylase, and maltogenic alpha-amylase and transglucosidase showed significant reduction of rapidly digested starch by 14.5%, 29.0%, 19.8%, and 31.0% with a concomitant increase of slowly digested starch by 9.0%, 19.7%, 5.7%, and 11.0%, respectively. The resistant starch content increased from 5.1% to 13.5% in treated starches. The total contents of the prebiotics isomaltose, isomaltotriose, and panose (Isomaltooligosaccharides) were 2.3% and 5.5%, respectively, for beta-amylase/transglucosidase- and maltogenic alpha-amylase/transglucosidase-treated starches. The molecular weight distribution of enzyme-treated starches and their debranched chain length distributions, analyzed using high-performance size-exclusion chromatography with multiangle laser light scattering and refractive index detection (HPSEC-MALLS-RI) and HPSEC-RI, showed distinctly different patterns among starches with different enzyme treatments. A larger proportion of low molecular weight fractions appeared in starches treated additionally with transglucosidase. All enzyme-treated starches showed a mixture of B- and V-type X-ray diffraction patterns, and 1H NMR spectra showed a significant increase of alpha-1,6 linkages. Both the increase of the starch branch density and the crystalline structure in the treated starches likely contribute to their slow digestion property.

Reciprocal Prioritization to Dietary Glycans by Gut Bacteria in a Competitive Environment Promotes Stable Coexistence.

When presented with nutrient mixtures, several human gut Bacteroides species exhibit hierarchical utilization of glycans through a phenomenon that resembles catabolite repression. However, it is unclear how closely these observed physiological changes, often measured by altered transcription of glycan utilization genes, mirror actual glycan depletion. To understand the glycan prioritization strategies of two closely related human gut symbionts, Bacteroides ovatus and Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron, we performed a series of time course assays in which both species were individually grown in a medium with six different glycans that both species can degrade. Disappearance of the substrates and transcription of the corresponding polysaccharide utilization loci (PULs) were measured. Each species utilized some glycans before others, but with different priorities per species, providing insight into species-specific hierarchical preferences. In general, the presence of highly prioritized glycans repressed transcription of genes involved in utilizing lower-priority nutrients. However, transcriptional sensitivity to some glycans varied relative to the residual concentration in the medium, with some PULs that target high-priority substrates remaining highly expressed even after their target glycan had been mostly depleted. Coculturing of these organisms in the same mixture showed that the hierarchical orders generally remained the same, promoting stable coexistence. Polymer length was found to be a contributing factor for glycan utilization, thereby affecting its place in the hierarchy. Our findings not only elucidate how B. ovatus and B. thetaiotaomicron strategically access glycans to maintain coexistence but also support the prioritization of carbohydrate utilization based on carbohydrate structure, advancing our understanding of the relationships between diet and the gut microbiome.IMPORTANCE The microorganisms that reside in the human colon fulfill their energy requirements mainly from diet- and host-derived complex carbohydrates. Members of this ecosystem possess poorly understood strategies to prioritize and compete for these nutrients. Based on direct carbohydrate measurements and corresponding transcriptional analyses, our findings showed that individual bacterial species exhibit different preferences for the same set of glycans and that this prioritization is maintained in a competitive environment, which may promote stable coexistence. Such understanding of gut bacterial glycan utilization will be essential to eliciting predictable changes in the gut microbiota to improve health through the diet.

Addition of glycerol for improved methylation linkage analysis of polysaccharides.

A presolubilization procedure with the use of glycerol is shown to be applicable for the structural analysis of polysaccharides. Neutral, acidic, high-molecular-weight and low-molecular-weight polysaccharides were solubilized in glycerol prior to methylation and subsequent linkage analysis by GC-MS. All four types of polysaccharides showed significant increases in derivatization following presolubilization as measured by recovery of partially methylated alditol acetates.

Analysis of octenylsuccinate rice and tapioca starches: Distribution of octenylsuccinic anhydride groups in starch granules.

Characterization of the fine structure of octenylsuccinic anhydride (OSA) starch would lead to a better understanding of functional properties. OSA rice and tapioca starches were analyzed using microscopy, liquid chromatography and nuclear magnetic resonance. Chain length distribution of amylopectin changed significantly (P<0.05) after OSA esterification. Weight averaged degree of polymerization (DPw) decreased significantly (P<0.05) from 16.47 to 13.29 and from 14.87 to 12.47 in native and OSA rice and tapioca starches, respectively. The chain length distribution of pure amylopectin fractions suggested that OSA groups were not present in the amylopectin portion of the starch. (1)H NMR analysis of pure amylose and amylopectin fractions indicated that OSA substitution was present only in amylose fractions of rice and tapioca starches. Esterification with 3% OSA results in starch that has OSA substituted mainly on amylose chains or possibly on amylopectin chains that have been hydrolyzed from the amylopectin molecules during esterification.

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa W.) and amaranth (Amaranthus caudatus L.) provide dietary fibres high in pectic substances and xyloglucans.

Dietary fibre of quinoa and amaranth was analysed for its insoluble and soluble fibre content, composition, and structure. Total dietary fibre content was 10% for quinoa and 11% for amaranth. For both pseudocereals, 78% of its dietary fibre was insoluble. Insoluble fibre (IDF) from quinoa and amaranth was mainly composed of galacturonic acid, arabinose, galactose, xylose and glucose. Linkage analysis indicated that IDF was composed of homogalacturonans and rhamnogalacturonan-I with arabinan side-chains (∼55-60%), as well as highly branched xyloglucans (∼30%) and cellulose. For both pseudocereals, 22% of total dietary fibre was soluble; a higher proportion than that found in wheat and maize (∼15%). The soluble fibre (SDF) was composed of glucose, galacturonic acid and arabinose; for amaranth, xylose was also a major constituent. Xyloglucans made up ∼40-60% of the SDF and arabinose-rich pectic polysaccharides represented ∼34-55%.

Synthesis and quantitative analysis of plasma-targeted metabolites of catechin and epicatechin.

Grape seed polyphenolic extract (GSPE) rich in the flavan-3-ols (+)-catechin and (-)-epicatechin beneficially modulates Alzheimer's Disease phenotypes in animal models. The parent molecules in the extract are converted to a series of methylated and glucuronidated derivatives. To fully characterize these metabolites and establish a robust quantitative assay of their levels in biological fluids, we have implemented a partial synthetic approach utilizing chemical methylation followed by enzymatic glucuronidation. Liquid chromatography/time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-TOF-MS) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy were used to assign unequivocal structures to the compounds. An analytical method using solid-phase extraction and LC-MS/MS in selective reaction monitoring mode (SRM) was validated for their quantitation in plasma. These studies provide a basis for improvements in future work on the bioavailability, metabolism, and mechanism of action of metabolites derived from dietary flavan-3-ols in a range of interventions.

A novel human antimicrobial factor targets Pseudomonas aeruginosa through its type III secretion system.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an important opportunistic bacterial pathogen. Despite its metabolic and virulence versatility, it has not been shown to infect articular joints, which are areas that are rarely infected with bacteria in general. We hypothesized that articular joints possess antimicrobial activity that limits bacterial survival in these environments. We report that cartilages secrete a novel antimicrobial factor, henceforth referred to as the cartilage-associated antimicrobial factor (CA-AMF), with potent antimicrobial activity. Importantly, CA-AMF exhibited significantly more antimicrobial activity against P. aeruginosa strains with a functional type III secretion system (T3SS). We propose that CA-AMF represents a new class of human antimicrobial factors in innate immunity, one which has evolved to selectively target pathogenic bacteria among the beneficial and commensal microflora. The T3SS is the first example, to the best of our knowledge, of a pathogen-specific molecular target in this antimicrobial defence system.

Enzyme-synthesized highly branched maltodextrins have slow glucose generation at the mucosal α-glucosidase level and are slowly digestible in vivo.

For digestion of starch in humans, α-amylase first hydrolyzes starch molecules to produce α-limit dextrins, followed by complete hydrolysis to glucose by the mucosal α-glucosidases in the small intestine. It is known that α-1,6 linkages in starch are hydrolyzed at a lower rate than are α-1,4 linkages. Here, to create designed slowly digestible carbohydrates, the structure of waxy corn starch (WCS) was modified using a known branching enzyme alone (BE) and an in combination with ß-amylase (BA) to increase further the α-1,6 branching ratio. The digestibility of the enzymatically synthesized products was investigated using α-amylase and four recombinant mammalian mucosal α-glucosidases. Enzyme-modified products (BE-WCS and BEBA-WCS) had increased percentage of α-1,6 linkages (WCS: 5.3%, BE-WCS: 7.1%, and BEBA-WCS: 12.9%), decreased weight-average molecular weight (WCS: 1.73×10(8) Da, BE-WCS: 2.76×10(5) Da, and BEBA-WCS 1.62×10(5) Da), and changes in linear chain distributions (WCS: 21.6, BE-WCS: 16.9, BEBA-WCS: 12.2 DPw). Hydrolysis by human pancreatic α-amylase resulted in an increase in the amount of branched α-limit dextrin from 26.8% (WCS) to 56.8% (BEBA-WCS). The α-amylolyzed samples were hydrolyzed by the individual α-glucosidases (100 U) and glucogenesis decreased with all as the branching ratio increased. This is the first report showing that hydrolysis rate of the mammalian mucosal α-glucosidases is limited by the amount of branched α-limit dextrin. When enzyme-treated materials were gavaged to rats, the level of postprandial blood glucose at 60 min from BEBA-WCS was significantly higher than for WCS or BE-WCS. Thus, highly branched glucan structures modified by BE and BA had a comparably slow digesting property both in vitro and in vivo. Such highly branched α-glucans show promise as a food ingredient to control postprandial glucose levels and to attain extended glucose release.

Identification of the cellular location of internalized Escherichia coli O157:H7 in mung bean, Vigna radiata, by immunocytochemical techniques.

Escherichia coli O157:H7 has been associated with numerous outbreaks involving fresh produce. Previous studies have shown that bacteria can be internalized within plant tissue and that this can be a source of protection from antimicrobial chemicals and environmental conditions. However, the types of tissue and cellular locations the bacteria occupy in the plant following internalization have not been addressed. In this study, immunocytochemical techniques were used to localize internalized E. coli O157:H7 expressing green fluorescent protein in germinated mung bean (Vigna radiata) hypocotyl tissue following contamination of intact seeds. An average of 13 bacteria per mm(3) were localized within the sampled tissue. The bacteria were found to be associated with every major tissue and corresponding cell type (cortex, phloem, xylem, epidermis, and pith). The cortical cells located on the outside of the vascular bundles contained the majority of the internalized bacteria (61%). In addition, the bacteria were localized primarily to the spaces between the cells (apoplast) and not within the cells. Growth experiments were also performed and demonstrated that mung bean plants could support the replication of bacteria to high levels (10(7) CFU per plant) following seed contamination and that these levels could be sustained over a 12-day period. Therefore, E. coli O157:H7 can be internalized in many different plant tissue types after a brief seed contamination event, and the bacteria are able to grow and persist within the plant.

Detection of E. coli O157:H7 from ground beef using Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy and chemometrics.

FT-IR spectroscopy methods for detection, differentiation, and quantification of E. coli O157:H7 strains separated from ground beef were developed. Filtration and immunomagnetic separation (IMS) were used to extract live and dead E. coli O157:H7 cells from contaminated ground beef prior to spectral acquisition. Spectra were analyzed using chemometric techniques in OPUS, TQ Analyst, and WinDAS software programs. Standard plate counts were used for development and validation of spectral analyses. The detection limit based on a selectivity value using the OPUS ident test was 10(5) CFU/g for both Filtration-FT-IR and IMS-FT-IR methods. Experiments using ground beef inoculated with fewer cells (10(1) to 10(2) CFU/g) reached the detection limit at 6 h incubation. Partial least squares (PLS) models with cross validation were used to establish relationships between plate counts and FT-IR spectra. Better PLS predictions were obtained for quantifying live E. coli O157:H7 strains (R(2)> or = 0.9955, RMSEE < or = 0.17, RPD > or = 14) and different ratios of live and dead E. coli O157:H7 cells (R(2)= 0.9945, RMSEE = 2.75, RPD = 13.43) from ground beef using Filtration-FT-IR than IMS-FT-IR methods. Discriminant analysis and canonical variate analysis (CVA) of the spectra differentiated various strains of E. coli O157:H7 from an apathogenic control strain. CVA also separated spectra of 100% dead cells separated from ground beef from spectra of 0.5% live cells in the presence of 99.5% dead cells of E. coli O157:H7. These combined separation and FT-IR methods could be useful for rapid detection and differentiation of pathogens in complex foods.

An apigenin-induced decrease in K-antigen production by Sinorhizobium sp. NGR234 is y4gM- and nodD1-dependent.

Cultured cells of Sinorhizobium sp. NGR234 produce an abundance of capsular polysaccharides, or K antigens; however, cells that are cultured in the presence of apigenin, a nod gene inducer, exhibited a significant reduction in K-antigen production. The flavonoid-induced modulation in capsule production appeared to be related to the phase-shift changes associated with bacteroid differentiation. Therefore, the polysaccharides were extracted from Sinorhizobium sp. NGR234 bacteroids recovered from Vigna unguiculata cv Red Caloona root nodules, and subsequent analyses showed that the bacteroid extracts were virtually devoid of K-antigen. Polysaccharide extracts from two nodulation mutants cultured in the presence of apigenin were then analyzed, and the results showed that the flavonoid-inducible decrease in K-antigen production is y4gM- and nodD1-dependent.

Sequence analysis of Escherichia coli O157:H7 bacteriophage PhiV10 and identification of a phage-encoded immunity protein that modifies the O157 antigen.

Bacteriophage PhiV10 is a temperate phage, which specifically infects Escherichia coli O157:H7. The nucleotide sequence of the PhiV10 genome is 39 104 bp long and contains 55 predicted genes. PhiV10 is closely related to two previously sequenced phages, the Salmonella enterica serovar Anatum (Group E1) phage epsilon15 and a prophage from E. coli APEC O1. The attachment site of PhiV10, like those of its two closest relatives, overlaps the 3' end of guaA in the host chromosome. PhiV10 encodes an O-acetyltransferase, which modifies the O157 antigen. This modification is sufficient to block PhiV10 superinfection, indicating that the O157 antigen is most likely the PhiV10 receptor.

Glucose release of water-soluble starch-related alpha-glucans by pancreatin and amyloglucosidase is affected by the abundance of alpha-1,6-glucosidic linkages.

This study tested the hypothesis that an increased branch density (i.e., the percentage of alpha-1,6-glucosidic linkage) in water-soluble, starch-related alpha-glucans leads to reduced glucose release by pancreatin and amyloglucosidase. Malto-oligosaccharides and phytoglycogens were structurally analyzed and compared for their susceptibility to the enzymes. Malto-oligosaccharides were prepared by subjecting starch to alpha-amylase and beta-amylase followed by ultrafiltration to enrich alpha-1,6-glucosidic linkages. The branch density of the oligosaccharide products reached up to 17%, determined by (1)H NMR. Phytoglycogens were extracted from six sweet corn lines, and analysis showed similar chain length distributions and a branch density range from 8.8 to 9.5%, as compared with 4.6% for normal corn starch and 5.7% for waxy corn starch. The digestion behavior of these alpha-glucans was correlated to branch density: Highly branched malto-oligosaccharides had much reduced glucose release as compared with starch, whereas the reduction of glucose release from phytoglycogen was relatively low. Particularly, the reduction of glucose release associated with enhanced branch density was caused by reduced hydrolysis by amyloglucosidase.

Strain-ecotype specificity in Sinorhizobium meliloti-Medicago truncatula symbiosis is correlated to succinoglycan oligosaccharide structure.

Molecular signals, including Nod factors and succinoglycan, are necessary for the establishment of nitrogen-fixing nodules (Fix+) in Medicago truncatula-Sinorhizobium meliloti symbiosis. This report shows that M. truncatula-S. meliloti interactions involve ecotype-strain specificity, as S. meliloti Rm41 and NRG247 are Fix+ (compatible) on M. truncatula A20 and Fix- (incompatible) on M. truncatula A17, the Fix phenotypes are reversed with S. meliloti NRG185 and NRG34, and there is a correlation between the host specificity and succinoglycan oligosaccharide structure. S. meliloti NRG185 produces oligosaccharides that are almost fully succinylated, with two succinate groups per subunit, whereas the oligosaccharides produced by S. meliloti Rm41 include many nonsuccinylated subunits, as well as subunits with a single succinate group and others with malate. The results of this study demonstrated the following: (i) incompatibility is not a consequence of an avirulence factor or lack of Nod factor activity; (ii) the Fix+ phenotypes are succinoglycan dependent; (iii) there is structural variability in the succinoglycan oligosaccharide populations between S. meliloti strains; (iv) the structural nature of the succinoglycan oligosaccharides is correlated to compatibility; most importantly, (v) an S. meliloti Rm41 derivative, carrying exo genes from an M. truncatula A17-compatible strain, produced a modified population of succinoglycan oligosaccharides (similar to the donor strain) and was Fix+ on A17.

Structural characterization of a flavonoid-inducible Pseudomonas aeruginosa A-band-like O antigen of Rhizobium sp. strain NGR234, required for the formation of nitrogen-fixing nodules.

Rhizobium (Sinorhizobium) sp. strain NGR234 contains three replicons, the smallest of which (pNGR234a) carries most symbiotic genes, including those required for nodulation and lipo-chito-oligosaccharide (Nod factor) biosynthesis. Activation of nod gene expression depends on plant-derived flavonoids, NodD transcriptional activators, and nod box promoter elements. Nod boxes NB6 and NB7 delimit six different types of genes, one of which (fixF) is essential for the formation of effective nodules on Vigna unguiculata. In vegetative culture, wild-type NGR234 produces a distinct, flavonoid-inducible lipopolysaccharide (LPS) that is not produced by the mutant (NGRomegafixF); this LPS is also found in nitrogen-fixing bacteroids isolated from V. unguiculata infected with NGR234. Electron microscopy showed that peribacteroid membrane formation is perturbed in nodule cells infected by the fixF mutant. LPSs were purified from free-living NGR234 cultured in the presence of apigenin. Structural analyses showed that the polysaccharide portions of these LPSs are specialized, rhamnose-containing O antigens attached to a modified core-lipid A carrier. The primary sequence of the O antigen is [-3)-alpha-L-Rhap-(1,3)-alpha-L-Rhap-(1,2)-alpha-L-Rhap-(1-]n, and the LPS core region lacks the acidic sugars commonly associated with the antigenic outer core of LPS from noninduced cells. This rhamnan O antigen, which is absent from noninduced cells, has the same primary sequence as the A-band O antigen of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, except that it is composed of L-rhamnose rather than the D-rhamnose characteristic of the latter. It is noteworthy that A-band LPS is selectively maintained on the P. aeruginosa cell surface during chronic cystic fibrosis lung infection, where it is associated with an increased duration of infection.