Psychological impairment in the wake of disaster: the disaster-psychopathology relationship.

The present review examines the relationship between disaster occurrence and psychopathology outcome for 52 studies that used quantitative measures of such a relationship. Descriptive and inferential techniques were used to examine relationships among four sets of variables: (a) the characteristics of the victim population, (b) the characteristics of the disaster, (c) study methodology, and (d) the type of psychopathology. A small but consistently positive relationship between disasters and psychopathology was found. The distribution of effect-size estimates was significantly heterogeneous, and this heterogeneity was partially accounted for by methodological characteristics of the research. When controlling for methodology, victim and disaster characteristics also contributed variance to the disaster-psychopathology relationship. Implications for future research are outlined in view of these results.

Cue exposure with coping skills training and communication skills training for alcohol dependence: 6- and 12-month outcomes.

AIMS: Cue exposure treatment (CET) has shown promise in preliminary studies with alcoholics, and Communication Skills Training (CST) has been found beneficial, especially in intensive treatment programs. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of CET and CST in a larger controlled study when both were added to intensive treatment programs. DESIGN AND INTERVENTIONS: A 2 x 2 design investigated the effects of CET with urge coping skills training compared to a meditation-relaxation control, and CST compared to an education control when all were added to intensive treatment programs for alcoholics. SETTING: The sites were the inpatient or partial hospital substance abuse treatment programs at a private psychiatric hospital, a state-funded residential facility and a VA medical center. PARTICIPANTS: Patients diagnosed with alcohol dependence without active psychosis were eligible. MEASUREMENTS: Participants were assessed for quantity and frequency of drinking, alcohol cue-reactivity, responses to high risk simulations and urge specific coping skills. FINDINGS: Of 100 treated patients, 86% provided 6-month and 84% provided 12-month follow-up data. Patients who received either CET or CST had fewer heavy drinking days in the first 6 months than control patients. In the second 6 months, CET continued to result in fewer heavy drinking days among lapsers and interacted with CST to decrease quantity of alcohol consumed. CST resulted in fewer alcohol-related problems reported at 12 months. CET resulted in greater reductions in urge to drink in a measure of simulated high-risk situations. CET also resulted in greater reports of use of coping strategies during the follow-up, and many of the urge-specific strategies taught in CET were associated with reduced drinking. CONCLUSIONS: Both CET and CST continue to show promise as elements of comprehensive alcohol treatment programs. Limitations and directions for future research are discussed.

Cue reactivity as a predictor of drinking among male alcoholics.

Social learning theories suggest that conditioned responses may increase the risk for relapse. Responses to alcohol use cues (cue reactivity) are associated with variables suggestive of risk but little research exists on the relationship of cue reactivity to treatment outcome. Alcoholic men admitted for detoxification to a treatment program (n = 45) underwent a cue reactivity assessment protocol, and 91% received 3-month follow-up interviews. Greater salivary reactivity predicted greater frequency of drinking during follow-up. Attentional factors added independent variance to the prediction of drinking outcome, with greater attention to stimulus or to response predicting less drinking. Cue reactivity did not predict length of hospital stay or latency to first drink. Results are discussed in the context of information processing, social learning theories, and clinical implications for relapse prevention.

Cue exposure with coping skills treatment for male alcoholics: a preliminary investigation.

Although early investigations were promising, no controlled follow-up studies have investigated the effectiveness of cue exposure treatment for alcoholics. In this study, inpatient alcoholics received either cue exposure integrated with urge coping skills training (CET, n = 22) or a contrast condition (CC) involving daily contact with assessment only (n = 18) in addition to standard treatment. Comprehensive assessment measures were used to investigate change in process and outcome variables. In the second 3 months after treatment, the CET group included more patients who were completely abstinent, had a higher percentage of abstinent days, and tended to report fewer drinks per day than did patients in the contrast condition. The significantly greater use of coping skills during follow-up by the CET group and the significant relationship of these coping skills to decreased drinking suggest that treatment effects were due, at least in part, to the coping skills training, consistent with recent formulations. Theoretical and treatment implications are discussed.

The cost effectiveness of treatment for alcoholism: a first approximation.

This study undertakes an analysis of cost effectiveness of alcoholism treatment modalities based upon (1) findings from clinical trials, (2) costs for treatment in settings and/or by providers and (3) recommendations from treatment experts about appropriate settings, providers and treatment events. This analysis, which assumes a prototypic patient, suggests that modalities with the most evidence of effectiveness (based on three or more clinical trials) are not the most expensive. Within this study, total cost of care was negatively related to effectiveness. Modalities categorized as having insufficient evidence of effectiveness (i.e., lacking three or more clinical trials) are in the higher cost categories. The results of this first effort to establish initial cost/effectiveness considerations are intended to stimulate researchers to conduct the types of clinical studies where both cost and effectiveness are carefully measured to increase the scientific basis for future cost/effect policy considerations. The authors expect future clinical studies will revise the results of this initial effort.

Alcohol cue reactivity and mood induction in male and female alcoholics.

The purpose of this study was twofold: to investigate gender differences in alcohol cue reactivity, and to study the effect of individualized mood induction on cue reactivity. Male (n = 38) and female (n = 19) alcoholics were exposed to an alcoholic beverage before and after mood induction to assess their reactivity to the beverage cues. The mood induction was based on a situation the subject had identified as being high risk for relapse. Subjects showed urge and salivary reactivity in response to alcohol beverage cues prior to mood induction, and the induction of mood enhanced urge reactivity in both men and women. Analyses with alcohol urge reactors (subjects that demonstrate an increased urge to drink alcohol in response to an alcoholic beverage cue) suggested that women show more urge reactivity in response to negative moods than do men. No gender differences were seen in reactivity to beverage cues alone. These results identify an important gender difference in the effect of negative moods on cue reactivity and suggest that negative mood situations may place women at a higher risk for relapse than men.

Alcohol cue reactivity: effects of detoxification and extended exposure.

Alcoholics' reactions to drinking-related stimuli (cue reactivity) have been well documented and alcohol cue exposure treatment has been conducted recently in several clinical trials. Prior to conducting large-scale clinical trials it is important to know what effects detoxification may have on cue reactivity. However, no information is available about the effects of stage of detoxification or of detoxification medication on alcohol cue reactivity. In this study, 45 male alcoholics, detoxified without medication, were assessed during either their second, fourth or sixth day of withdrawal. Further, their reactivity was compared to that of alcoholics detoxified with chlordiazepoxide (n = 15), and to that of alcoholics in their fourth week after drinking (n = 28). Cue reactivity assessment investigated salivation and urge to drink after 3 minutes of water cue exposure and then after 3 minutes of alcohol cue exposure. Urges to drink were assessed during an additional 15 minutes of alcohol exposure to explore latency to maximum reactivity and habituation. Reactivity did not differ as a function of group membership, although salivation was elevated to both beverages during the first week of detoxification. Of the sample, 70% reacted to alcohol with increased urge and 65% with increased salivation, with no difference between groups in proportions of reactors. The maximum urge to drink occurred in the first 6 minutes of alcohol exposure, followed by a gradual and significant decrease. There were no differences on these measures between alcoholics in their first or fourth week after their last drink. Implications for theory and clinical applications are discussed.