Carbamoylase-based impedimetric electronic tongue for rapid detection of paralytic shellfish toxins.

Phytotoxins produced by marine microalgae, such as paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs), can accumulate in bivalve molluscs, representing a human health concern due to the life-threatening symptoms they cause. To avoid the commercialization of contaminated bivalves, monitoring programs were established in the EU. The purpose of this work is the implementation of a PST transforming enzyme-carbamoylase-in an impedimetric test for rapid simultaneous detection of several carbamate and N-sulfocarbamoyl PSTs. Carbamoylase hydrolyses carbamate and sulfocarbamoyl toxins, which may account for up to 90% of bivalve toxicity related to PSTs. Conformational changes of carbamoylase accompanying enzymatic reactions were probed by Fourier transform mid-infrared spectroscopy (FT-MIR) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). Furthermore, a combination of EIS with a metal electrode and a carbamoylase-based assay was employed to harness changes in the enzyme conformation and adsorption on the electrode surface during the enzymatic reaction as an analytical signal. After optimization of the working conditions, the developed impedimetric e-tongue could quantify N-sulfocarbamoyl toxins with a detection limit of 0.1 µM. The developed e-tongue allows the detection of these toxins at concentration levels observed in bivalves with PST toxicity close to the regulatory limit. The quantification of a sum of N-sulfocarbamoyl PSTs in naturally contaminated mussel extracts using the developed impedimetric e-tongue has been demonstrated.

Major characteristics of microplastics in mussels from the Portuguese coast.

The present study reports the quantity, shape, colour and chemical properties of microplastics (MP) and MP-like in whole soft tissues of the mussel Mytilus spp. collected in January and February 2019 from four natural banks in the Portuguese coast. Three sites are located in estuarine areas influenced by anthropogenic pressures and freshwater discharges, and one in the coast far from urbanised areas. An alkaline digestion (KOH) of biological tissues was used and a polymeric identification of 20% of the visually sorted particles was achieved using the Fourier-transform mid-infrared spectroscopy (FT-MIR). MP and MP-like concentrations ranged from 0.54 to 3.0 items g-1 without significant differences among the sites. Particle size varied from 36 to 4439 µm, being fibers the most abundant shape (50%) followed by films (22%) and spherules (18%). FT-MIR revealed that 69% of the analysed particles were plastic, being identified six polymers and two polymeric blends, and 32% were cellulose-based materials. Fibers identified in mussel tissues were mainly composed of cotton and viscose (77%). This study emphasizes the importance of the polymer's spectroscopic identification after microscopic observation to recognise MP.

A Carbamoylase-Based Bioassay for the Detection of Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning Toxins.

Out of control proliferation of toxic phytoplankton, called harmful algal blooms (HABs), have a significant economic impact on bivalve aquaculture and harvesting in coastal waters. Some phytotoxins, such as paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs), are of concern due to the life-threatening symptoms they can cause. Development of rapid and low-cost screening tools would be a welcome addition to the laboratory methodologies employed in routine monitoring programs. However, most of the assays and biosensors for the screening of PSTs, are restricted to a single target, saxitoxin (STX), which is the most potent PST. The present study aimed at developing an assay for the detection of N-sulfocarbamoyl PST-GTX5, which is one of the most abundant toxins in bivalves during G. catenatum blooms as found on the Portuguese coast. Enzymatic assay employing PSTs' transforming enzyme-carbamoylase-was proposed. Carbamoylase was extracted and purified from the surf clam S. solida. Carbamoylase displayed similar specificity to both carbamate (STX) and N-sulfocarbamate toxins (GTX5 and C1+2) converting them into decarbamoyl saxitoxin (dcSTX) and decarbamoyl gonyautoxins 2+3 (dcGTX2+3), respectively. The enzymatic assay involved hydrolysis of GTX5 by carbamoylase and quantification of the product of enzymatic reaction, dcSTX, using a potentiometric chemical sensor. A potentiometric sensor with plasticized PVC membrane that displayed sensitivity to dcSTX and selectivity in the presence of GTX5 was employed. Enzymatic assay allowed determination of GTX5 in the concentration range from 0.43 to 3.30 µmolL-1, which encompasses levels of GTX5 in contaminated bivalve extracts with toxicities above PSTs regulatory limits. The feasibility of the carbamoylase-based potentiometric assay for detection of GTX5 was demonstrated.

D-Shaped POF Sensors for Refractive Index Sensing-The Importance of Surface Roughness.

In this study the influence of the surface roughness on the transmission capacities of D-shaped plastic optical fibers (POFs) and sensors performance was investigated. Five D-shaped POF sensors were produced and characterized for refractive index sensing between 1.33 and 1.41. The sensors were characterized using a low-cost optical sensing system based on the variation of the transmitted light though the POF with refractive index changes (RI). Higher surface roughness increases the scattering losses through the POF and influences the sensors' performance; therefore, a balance must be attained. Generally, the best performance was achieved when the sensing region was polished with P600 sandpaper as a final polishing step. Polishing with sandpapers of lower grit size resulted in lower scattering, higher linearity of the sensor response and generally lower performance for RI sensing. A sensor resolution of 10-3-10-4 RIU, dependent on the value of the external refractive index, was obtained through simple and low-cost manufacturing procedures. The obtained results show the importance of surface roughness in the development of POF sensors which can be used in several applications, such as for water quality assessment.

Cheeses Made from Raw and Pasteurized Cow's Milk Analysed by an Electronic Nose and an Electronic Tongue.

Cheese prepared from whole milk, raw and pasteurized, were analysed by an electronic nose based on piezoelectric quartz crystals and an electronic tongue based on potentiometric sensors, immediately after their preparation and along ripening (after 7 and 21 days). Whey was also analysed by the potentiometric electronic tongue. Results obtained by the electronic nose and tongue were found to be complementary, with the electronic nose being more sensitive to differences in the milk and the electronic tongue being more sensitive to milk pasteurization. Electronic tongue was able to distinguish cheeses made from raw and pasteurized milk, both analysing the whey or the curd, with correct classification rate of 96% and 84%, respectively. Besides, the electronic nose was more sensitive than the electronic tongue to the ripening process, with large differences between samples after 7 and 21 days, while the electronic tongue was only sensitive to the initial maturation stages, with large difference between freshly prepared cheese and with seven days of maturation.

Oxidative stress in asthmatic and non-asthmatic adolescent swimmers-A breathomics approach.

We hypothesize that oxidative stress induced by trichloramine exposure during swimming could be related to etiopathogenesis of asthma among elite swimmers. AIM: To investigate the effect of a swimming training session on oxidative stress markers of asthmatic compared to non-asthmatic elite swimmers using exhaled breath (EB) metabolomics. METHODS: Elite swimmers annually screened in our department (n=27) were invited and those who agreed to participate (n=20, of which 9 with asthma) had EB collected (Tedlar® bags) before and after a swimming training session. SPME fiber (DVB/CAR/PDMS) was used to extract EB metabolites followed by a multidimensional gas chromatography analysis (GC×GC-ToFMS). Dataset comprises eight metabolites end products of lipid peroxidation: five aliphatic alkanes (nonane, 2,2,4,6,6-pentamethylheptane, decane, dodecane, and tetradecane) and three aldehydes (nonanal, decanal, and dodecanal). To assess exercise impact on lipid peroxidation markers, data were analyzed using principle component analysis (PCA), which was run on the original data set and on the data set constructed using differences in the metabolite total areas before and after exercise session. RESULTS: Heatmap representation revealed that metabolites content decreased after exercise, both for control and asthma groups; however, the greater decrease was observed for controls. Asthmatics and controls did not form separated clusters; however, control swimmers demonstrated a more varied response to the exercise being dispersed along all score plot. CONCLUSION: In well-trained athletes, swimming is associated with a decrease in oxidative stress markers independently of the presence of asthma, although a more pronounced decrease was seen in controls.

Refractive Index Sensing with D-Shaped Plastic Optical Fibers for Chemical and Biochemical Applications.

We report the optimization of the length of a D-shaped plastic optical fiber (POF) sensor for refractive index (RI) sensing from a numerical and experimental point of view. The sensing principle is based on total internal reflection (TIR). POFs with 1 mm in diameter were embedded in grooves, realized in planar supports with different lengths, and polished to remove the cladding and part of the core. All D-shaped POF sensors were tested using aqueous medium with different refractive indices (from 1.332 to 1.471) through intensity-based configuration. Results showed two different responses. Considering the refractive index (RI) range (1.33-1.39), the sensitivity and the resolution of the sensor were strongly dependent on the sensing region length. The highest sensitivity (resolution of 6.48 × 10-3 refractive index units, RIU) was obtained with 6 cm sensing length. In the RI range (1.41-1.47), the length of the sensing region was not a critical aspect to obtain the best resolution. These results enable the application of this optical platform for chemical and biochemical evanescent field sensing. The sensor production procedure is very simple, fast, and low-cost.

Top-down lipidomics of low density lipoprotein reveal altered lipid profiles in advanced chronic kidney disease.

This study compared the molecular lipidomic profile of LDL in patients with nondiabetic advanced renal disease and no evidence of CVD to that of age-matched controls, with the hypothesis that it would reveal proatherogenic lipid alterations. LDL was isolated from 10 normocholesterolemic patients with stage 4/5 renal disease and 10 controls, and lipids were analyzed by accurate mass LC/MS. Top-down lipidomics analysis and manual examination of the data identified 352 lipid species, and automated comparative analysis demonstrated alterations in lipid profile in disease. The total lipid and cholesterol content was unchanged, but levels of triacylglycerides and N-acyltaurines were significantly increased, while phosphatidylcholines, plasmenyl ethanolamines, sulfatides, ceramides, and cholesterol sulfate were significantly decreased in chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients. Chemometric analysis of individual lipid species showed very good discrimination of control and disease sample despite the small cohorts and identified individual unsaturated phospholipids and triglycerides mainly responsible for the discrimination. These findings illustrate the point that although the clinical biochemistry parameters may not appear abnormal, there may be important underlying lipidomic changes that contribute to disease pathology. The lipidomic profile of CKD LDL offers potential for new biomarkers and novel insights into lipid metabolism and cardiovascular risk in this disease.

Paralytic Shellfish Toxin Extraction from Bivalve Meat for Analysis Using Potentiometric Chemical Sensors.

A simple and reliable methodology for the detection of paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) in bivalve tissues using potentiometric chemical sensors was developed. Five methods of PST extraction from mussel and oyster tissues were evaluated, including the AOAC-recommended method, which served as the reference. The main objective was to minimize the matrix effect of the extracts on the sensors' responses and ensure efficient toxin recovery. Extraction procedures using acetic acid with heating and water yielded the highest responses from the potentiometric chemical sensors to PSTs. The highest recovery of PSTs from bivalve tissues was achieved with extraction using acetic acid and heating. Further extract purification, which is indispensable for liquid chromatography with fluorometric detection (LC-FLD) analysis, was found to be unnecessary for analysis with chemical sensors. While water extraction can also be used as a rapid and simple PST extraction method, the lower recoveries should be considered when interpreting the results. Further research is needed to identify the compounds remaining in the extracts that cause a decrease in sensor responses and to develop procedures for their elimination.

A comparison of five lipid extraction solvent systems for lipidomic studies of human LDL.

Lipidome profile of fluids and tissues is a growing field as the role of lipids as signaling molecules is increasingly understood, relying on an effective and representative extraction of the lipids present. A number of solvent systems suitable for lipid extraction are commonly in use, though no comprehensive investigation of their effectiveness across multiple lipid classes has been carried out. To address this, human LDL from normolipidemic volunteers was used to evaluate five different solvent extraction protocols [Folch, Bligh and Dyer, acidified Bligh and Dyer, methanol (MeOH)-tert-butyl methyl ether (TBME), and hexane-isopropanol] and the extracted lipids were analyzed by LC-MS in a high-resolution instrument equipped with polarity switching. Overall, more than 350 different lipid species from 19 lipid subclasses were identified. Solvent composition had a small effect on the extraction of predominant lipid classes (triacylglycerides, cholesterol esters, and phosphatidylcholines). In contrast, extraction of less abundant lipids (phosphatidylinositols, lyso-lipids, ceramides, and cholesterol sulfates) was greatly influenced by the solvent system used. Overall, the Folch method was most effective for the extraction of a broad range of lipid classes in LDL, although the hexane-isopropanol method was best for apolar lipids and the MeOH-TBME method was suitable for lactosyl ceramides.

Potentiometric chemical sensors from lignin-poly(propylene oxide) copolymers doped by carbon nanotubes.

Hardwood and softwood lignins obtained from industrial sulphite and kraft and laboratory oxygen-organosolv pulping processes were employed in co-polymerization with tolylene 2,4-diisocyanate terminated poly(propylene glycol). The obtained lignin-based polyurethanes were doped with 0.72 w/w% of multiwall carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) with the aim of increasing their electrical conductivity to the levels suitable for sensor applications. Effects of the polymer doping with MWCNTs were assessed using electrical impedance (EIS) and UV-Resonance Raman (UV-RR) spectroscopy. Potentiometric sensors were prepared by drop casting of liquid polymer on the surface of carbon glass or platinum electrodes. Lignin-based sensors displayed a very low or no sensitivity to all alkali, alkali-earth and transition metal cations ions except Cr(VI) at pH 2. Response to Cr(VI) values of 39, 50 and 53 mV pX(-1) for the sensors based on kraft, organosolv and lignosulphonate lignins, respectively, were observed. Redox sensitivity values close to the theoretical values of 20 and 21 mV pX(-1) for organosolv and lignosulphonate based sensors respectively were detected in the Cr(III)/Cr(VI) solutions while a very low response was observed in the solutions containing Fe(CN)(6)(3-/4-). Conducting composite lignin-based polyurethanes doped with MWCNTs were suggested as being promising materials for Cr(VI)-sensitive potentiometric sensors.

Volatile Composition of Fortification Grape Spirit and Port Wine: Where Do We Stand?

Port wine's prominence worldwide is unequivocal and the grape spirit, which comprises roughly one fifth of the total volume of this fortified wine, is also a contributor to the recognized quality of this beverage. Nonetheless, information about the influence of the grape spirit on the final aroma of Port wine, as well as its volatile composition, is extremely limited. Moreover, the aroma characteristics of Port wines are modulated mainly by their volatile profiles. Hence, this review presents a detailed overview of the volatile composition of the fortification spirit and Port wine, along with the methodologies employed for their characterization. Moreover, it gives a general overview of the Douro Demarcated Region (Portugal) and the relevance of fortification spirit to the production of Port wine. As far as we know, this review contains the most extensive database on the volatile composition of grape spirit and Port wine, corresponding to 23 and 208 compounds, respectively. To conclude, the global outlook and future challenges are addressed, with the position of the analytical coverage of the chemical data on volatile components discussed as crucial for the innovation centered on consumer preferences.

Microplastics in marine mussels, biological effects and human risk of intake: A case study in a multi-stressor environment.

This study documented seasonal levels of microplastics (MPs) and biomarkers (condition index, neurotoxicity, energy, oxidative stress) in mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis), and water physico-chemical parameters in the Douro estuary (NE Atlantic coast), and estimated the human risk of MP intake (HRI) through mussels. Mussel stress was determined through the Integrated Biomarker Response (IBR). HRI was estimated from mussel MP concentrations and consumer habits. MPs were mainly micro-fibres (72 %) with varied chemical composition. Seasonal MP means (±SEM) in mussels ranged from 0.111 ± 0.044 (spring) to 0.312 ± 0.092 MPs/g (summer). Seasonal variations of mussel stress (IBR: 1.4 spring to 9.7 summer) and MP concentrations were not related. MeO-BDEs, PBDEs, temperature, salinity and other factors likely contributed to mussel stress variation. HRI ranged from 2438 to 2650 MPs/year. Compared to the literature, MP contamination in mussels is low, as well as the human risk of MP intake through their consumption.

Modified kraft lignin for bioremediation applications.

Kraft lignin (KL) from industrial pulping of E. globulus wood was subjected to the oxidative modification with the aim to produce sorbent mimicking humic matter for the bioremediation purposes. Lignin was oxidized by polyoxometalate Na(5)[PMo(10)V(2)O(40)] (POM), solely or in the presence of laccase, under pre-selected aerobic conditions (50-60°C, 1-2h, oxygen pressure 5 bar). The most pronounced lignin oxidation without its depolymerisation was observed in the reaction system POM/O(2). Modified lignins possessed increased amounts of COOH (up to 15 %) and CO (up to 500 %) groups, when compared to unmodified KL, and significantly higher molecular weights. Sorption capacity of KL before and after modification towards transition metals (cadmium (II) and mercury (II)) and triazine pesticide (atrazine) was assessed in batch experiments under equilibrium conditions. KL oxidation improved sorption capacity towards transition metals (up to 15 %) but not necessarily the uptake of atrazine that was higher for unmodified KL.

Lignosulfonate-Based Conducting Flexible Polymeric Membranes for Liquid Sensing Applications.

In this study, lignosulfonate (LS) from the acid sulfite pulping of eucalypt wood was used to synthesize LS-based polyurethanes (PUs) doped with multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) within the range of 0.1-1.4% w/w, yielding a unique conducting copolymer composite, which was employed as a sensitive material for all-solid-state potentiometric chemical sensors. LS-based PUs doped with 1.0% w/w MWCNTs exhibited relevant electrical conductivity suitable for sensor applications. The LS-based potentiometric sensor displayed a near-Nernstian or super-Nernstian response to a wide range of transition metals, including Cu(II), Zn(II), Cd(II), Cr(III), Cr(VI), Hg(II), and Ag(I) at pH 7 and Cr(VI) at pH 2. It also exhibited a redox response to the Fe(II)/(III) redox pair at pH 2. Unlike other lignin-based potentiometric sensors in similar composite materials, this LS-based flexible polymeric membrane did not show irreversible complexation with Hg(II). Only a weak response toward ionic liquids, [C2mim]Cl and ChCl, was registered. Unlike LS-based composites comprising MWCNTs, those doped with graphene oxide (GO), reduced GO (rGO), and graphite (Gr) did not reveal the same electrical conductivity, even with loads up to 10% (w/w), in the polymer composite. This fact is associated, at least partially, with the different filler dispersion abilities within the polymeric matrix.

Sustainable Valorization of Sambucus nigra L. Berries: From Crop Biodiversity to Nutritional Value of Juice and Pomace.

Improvement of dietary and ecological biodiversity, namely by exploring autochthonous varieties, is a key point to the construction of a more sustainable food system and planetary health. However, the environmental sustainability continues to face huge challenges, reflecting the importance of achieving a better understanding about the functional role of biodiversity in ecosystems. Thus, the main objective of this research is to contribute to the sustainable valorization of Sambucus nigra L. berries through a comprehensive approach to evaluate the effects of elderberry's cultivar, harvest year, and plantation field on the physicochemical berry composition. Moreover, the nutritional value of elderberry juice and respective dried pomace was determined. This complementary information is of huge utility for the rational and, as much as possible, integral use of elderberries. The harvest year, followed by field and the interaction of harvest × field, accounted for the highest impact on the berry's physicochemical parameters, indicating the importance of the combined impact of the macro- and mesoclimate conditions on plant metabolism. Elderberry juice and dried pomace are a good source of carbohydrates (ca. 12 and 82%, respectively) and have low amounts of fat (≤2.5%), making them low-energy foods. Dried pomace may also represent a potential alternative source of vegetal protein (ca. 6%).

HS-SPME Gas Chromatography Approach for Underivatized Acrylamide Determination in Biscuits.

Acrylamide (AA) is a food contaminant in thermally processed products that is object of tight control. A simple and easy-to-apply methodology for routine monitoring of AA levels in food products could allow producers to be players in the control of their own products. In this work, a simple methodology for AA quantification without derivatization was developed for biscuits, for which the benchmark levels recommended by EFSA are 350 µg/kg, and 150 µg/kg for biscuits for infants and young children. Headspace-solid phase microextraction (HS-SPME) was used in 120 mL screwed-cap vials with a carboxen/polydimetylsiloxane fiber, 4 g of biscuits, and 10 mL of water during 15 min at room temperature under stirring. The addition of 30 mL of propanol under stirring during 15 min at room temperature and 15 min at 60 °C was used to promote AA transfer to the headspace. The fiber exposure was 45 min. A gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis allowed to obtain an external calibration curve at m/z 71, with linearity R2 > 0.99 and precision RSD < 9%. The detection and quantification limits were 27.4 µg/kg and 91.5 µg/kg, respectively. The methodology was successfully used in biscuits with lower AA amount, where mitigation strategies (asparaginase or pectate) were applied.

Instrumental measurement of bitter taste in red wine using an electronic tongue.

An electronic tongue (ET) based on potentiometric chemical sensors was assessed as a rapid tool for the quantification of bitterness in red wines. A set of 39 single cultivar Pinotage wines comprising 13 samples with medium to high bitterness was obtained from the producers in West Cape, South Africa. Samples were analysed with respect to a set of routine wine parameters and major phenolic compounds using Fourier transform infrared-multiple internal reflection spectroscopy (WineScan) and high-performance liquid chromatography, respectively. A trained sensory panel assessed the bitterness intensity of 15 wines, 13 of which had a bitter taste of medium to high intensity. Thirty-one wine samples including seven bitter-tasting ones were measured by the ET. Influence of the chemical composition of wine on the occurrence of the bitter taste was evaluated using one-way analysis of variance. It was found that bitter-tasting wines had higher concentrations of phenolic compounds (catechin, epicatechin, gallic and caffeic acids and quercetin) than non-bitter wines. Sensitivity of the sensors of the array to the phenolic compounds related to the bitterness was studied at different pH levels. Sensors displayed sensitivity to all studied compounds at pH 7, but only to quercetin at pH 3.5. Based on these findings, the pH of wine was adjusted to 7 prior to measurements. Calibration models for classification of wine samples according to the presence of the bitter taste and quantification of the bitterness intensity were calculated by partial least squares-discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) regression. Statistical significance of the classification results was confirmed by the permutation test. Both ET and chemical analysis data could discriminate between bitter and control wines with the correct classification rates of 94% and 91%, respectively. Prediction of the bitterness intensity with good accuracy (root mean square error of 2 and mean relative error of 6% in validation) was possible only using ET data.

Paralytic Shellfish Toxins (PST)-Transforming Enzymes: A Review.

Paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) are a group of toxins that cause paralytic shellfish poisoning through blockage of voltage-gated sodium channels. PSTs are produced by prokaryotic freshwater cyanobacteria and eukaryotic marine dinoflagellates. Proliferation of toxic algae species can lead to harmful algal blooms, during which seafood accumulate high levels of PSTs, posing a health threat to consumers. The existence of PST-transforming enzymes was first remarked due to the divergence of PST profiles and concentrations between contaminated bivalves and toxigenic organisms. Later, several enzymes involved in PST transformation, synthesis and elimination have been identified. The knowledge of PST-transforming enzymes is necessary for understanding the processes of toxin accumulation and depuration in mollusk bivalves. Furthermore, PST-transforming enzymes facilitate the obtainment of pure analogues of toxins as in natural sources they are present in a mixture. Pure compounds are of interest for the development of drug candidates and as analytical reference materials. PST-transforming enzymes can also be employed for the development of analytical tools for toxin detection. This review summarizes the PST-transforming enzymes identified so far in living organisms from bacteria to humans, with special emphasis on bivalves, cyanobacteria and dinoflagellates, and discusses enzymes' biological functions and potential practical applications.

Sorption of okadaic acid lipophilic toxin onto plastics in seawater.

The present study tested under laboratorial conditions the sorption of okadaic acid (OA), a lipophilic toxin produced by marine phytoplankton, onto 6-mm plastic circular fragments. Fragments (4 g L-1) of polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polypropylene (PP), expanded polystyrene (EPS) and non-expanded polystyrene (PS) were exposed for 96 h to seawater spiked with 10 ng mL-1 of OA. Results of the experiments showed a broad percentage of OA removed from the water by plastics after 48 h of exposure: 30 ± 5.1% (PET), 37 ± 9.5% (PP), 62 ± 7.1% (EPS) and 83 ± 1.9% (PS). Sorption appears to be highly influenced by polymer's characteristics, such as polarity and degree of crystallinity. Further studies are needed to clarify the effect of the contact area on sorption by expanded plastics. These results point to the plausible interaction of OA and plastics in coastal waters.