Decontamination of high-touch environmental surfaces (HITES) by wiping: quantitative assessment of a carrier platform simulating pathogen removal, inactivation and transfer in the field.

We report here a carrier platform (Teflon; 30.0 × 60.0 × 0.9 cm) and a carrier retrieval device to assess pathogen decontamination of high-touch environmental surfaces (HITES) by wiping. Each one of the nine metallic disks (1 cm diameter and 0.7 mm thick) received 10 µL of the microbial suspension in a soil load, the inocula dried and the platform then wiped with a piece of fabric presoaked in a control or disinfectant fluid; the used wipe was immediately applied on a second platform with sterile disks to assess microbial transfer. Each test and control disk from a given platform was separately and simultaneously retrieved into 10 mL of an eluent/neutralizer for assays at the end of the contact time (total of 5 min, starting from the beginning of the wiping). Staphylococcus aureus and Acinetobacter baumannii were used as representative HITES-borne pathogens. The wipes tested separately contained 0.26% of a quaternary ammonium compound (Product A), and 250 ppm sodium hypochlorite at neutral pH (Product B). The control fabric (Product C) was dampened with a buffer containing a detergent. Product A achieved a >4 log10 (>99.99%) reduction in the viability of the bacteria on wiping with a barely detectable level of transfer of CFUs to clean disks. Product B achieved a >2 log10 (>99.00%) reduction in the viability of the test microbes while transferring a higher level of CFUs as compared to Product A. With Product C, there was a <1 log10 (<86.2%) reduction in the viability of the test microbes while transferring >1% of the contamination.

Direct and quantitative capture of viable bacteriophages from experimentally contaminated indoor air: A model for the study of airborne vertebrate viruses including SARS-CoV-2.

AIM: The air indoors has profound health implications as it can expose us to pathogens, allergens and particulates either directly or via contaminated surfaces. There is, therefore, an upsurge in marketing of air decontamination technologies, but with no proper validation of their claims. We addressed the gap through the construction and use of a versatile room-sized (25 m3 ) chamber to study airborne pathogen survival and inactivation. METHODS AND RESULTS: Here, we report on the quantitative recovery and detection of an enveloped (Phi6) and a non-enveloped bacteriophage (MS2). The two phages, respectively, acted as surrogates for airborne human pathogenic enveloped (e.g., influenza, Ebola and coronavirus SARS-CoV-2) and non-enveloped (e.g., norovirus) viruses from indoor air deposited directly on the lawns of their respective host bacteria using a programmable slit-to-agar air sampler. Using this technique, two different devices based on HEPA filtration and UV light were tested for their ability to decontaminate indoor air. This safe, relatively simple and inexpensive procedure augments the use of phages as surrogates for the study of airborne human and animal pathogenic viruses. CONCLUSIONS: This simple, safe and relatively inexpensive method of direct recovery and quantitative detection of viable airborne phage particles can greatly enhance their applicattion as surrogates for the study of vertebrate virus survival in indoor air and assessment of technologies for their decontamination. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: The safe, economical and simple technique reported here can be applied widely to investigate the role of indoor air for virus survival and transmission and also to assess the potential of air decontaminating technologies.

Quantifying pathogen infection risks from household laundry practices.

AIMS: Contaminated laundry can spread infections. However, current directives for safe laundering are limited to healthcare settings and not reflective of domestic conditions. We aimed to use quantitative microbial risk assessment to evaluate household laundering practices (e.g., detergent selection, washing and drying temperatures, and sanitizer use) relative to log10 reductions in pathogens and infection risks during the clothes sorting, washer/dryer loading, folding and storing steps. METHODS AND RESULTS: Using published data, we characterized laundry infection risks for respiratory and enteric pathogens relative to a single user contact scenario and a 1.0 × 10-6 acceptable risk threshold. For respiratory pathogens, risks following cold water wash temperatures (e.g. median 14.4℃) and standard detergents ranged from 2.2 × 10-5 to 2.2 × 10-7 . Use of advanced, enzymatic detergents reduced risks to 8.6 × 10-8 and 2.2 × 10-11 respectively. For enteric pathogens, however, hot water, advanced detergents, sanitizing agents and drying are needed to reach risk targets. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: Conclusions provide guidance for household laundry practices to achieve targeted risk reductions, given a single user contact scenario. A key finding was that hand hygiene implemented at critical control points in the laundering process was the most significant driver of infection prevention, additionally reducing infection risks by up to 6 log10 .

A review of Cryptosporidium spp. and their detection in water.

Cryptosporidium spp. are one of the most important waterborne pathogens worldwide and a leading cause of mortality from waterborne gastrointestinal diseases. Detection of Cryptosporidium spp. in water can be very challenging due to their low numbers and the complexity of the water matrix. This review describes the biology of Cryptosporidium spp. and current methods used in their detection with a focus on C. parvum and C. hominis. Among the methods discussed and compared are microscopy, immunology-based methods using monoclonal antibodies, molecular methods including PCR (polymerase chain reaction)-based assays, and emerging aptamer-based methods. These methods have different capabilities and limitations, but one common challenge is the need for better sensitivity and specificity, particularly in the presence of contaminants. The application of DNA aptamers in the detection of Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts shows promise in overcoming these challenges, and there will likely be significant developments in aptamer-based sensors in the near future.

Development and application of DNA-aptamer-coupled magnetic beads and aptasensors for the detection of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in drinking and recreational water resources.

Environmentally stable and disinfectant-resistant oocysts of Cryptosporidium spp. shed in the feces of infected humans and animals frequently contaminate water resources and are subsequently spread via potable and recreational waters. The current monoclonal-antibody-based methods for detecting them in water are slow, labor-intensive, and demand skills to interpret the results. We have developed DNA-aptamer-based aptasensors, coupled with magnetic beads, to detect and identify the oocysts of C. parvum for monitoring recreational and drinking water sources. A sensitive and specific electrochemical aptasensor (3'-biotinylated R4-6 aptamer) was used as a secondary ligand to bind the streptavidin-coated magnetic beads. This was incorporated into a probe using gold nanoparticle modified screen-printed carbon electrodes. Square wave voltammetry allowed for specific recognition of C. parvum oocysts. The aptamer-coated probes had an oocyst detection limit of 50. It did not bind to the cysts of Giardia duodenalis, another common waterborne pathogen, thus indicating its high specificity for the target pathogen. The system could successfully detect C. parvum oocysts in spiked samples of the raw lake and river waters. Therefore, the combined use of the aptasensor and magnetic beads has the potential to monitor water quality for C. parvum oocysts in field samples without relying on monoclonal antibodies and skill-demanding microscopy.

Airborne Pathogens inside Automobiles for Domestic Use: Assessing In-Car Air Decontamination Devices Using Staphylococcus aureus as the Challenge Bacterium.

Family cars represent ∼74% of the yearly global output of motorized vehicles. With a life expectancy of ∼8 decades in many countries, the average person spends >100 min daily inside the confined and often shared space of the car, with exposure to a mix of potentially harmful microbes. Can commercial in-car microbial air decontamination devices mitigate the risk? Three such devices (designated devices 1 to 3) with HEPA filters were tested in the modified passenger cabin (3.25 m3) of a four-door sedan housed within a biosafety level 3 containment facility. Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 6538) was suspended in a soil load to simulate the presence of body fluids and aerosolized into the car's cabin with a 6-jet Collison nebulizer. A muffin fan (80 mm by 80 mm, with an output of 0.17 m3/min) circulated the air inside. Plates (150 mm diameter) of Trypticase soy agar (TSA), placed inside a programmable slit-to-agar sampler, were held at 36 ± 1°C for 18 to 24 h and examined for CFU. The input dose of the test bacterium, its rate of biological decay, and the log10 reductions by the test devices were analyzed. The arbitrarily set performance criterion was the time in hours a device took for a 3-log10 reduction in the level of airborne challenge bacterium. On average, the level of S. aureus challenge in the air varied between 4.2 log10 CFU/m3 and 5.5 log10 CFU/m3, and its rate of biological decay was -0.0213 ± 0.0021 log10 CFU/m3/min. Devices 1 to 3 took 2.3, 1.5, and 9.7 h, respectively, to meet the performance criterion. While the experimental setup was tested using S. aureus as an archetypical airborne pathogen, it can be readily adapted to test other types of pathogens and technologies.IMPORTANCE This study was designed to test the survival of airborne pathogens in the confined and shared space of a family automobile as well as to assess claims of devices marketed for in-car air decontamination. The basic experimental setup and the test protocols reported are versatile enough for work with all major types of airborne human pathogens and for testing a wide variety of air decontamination technologies. This study could also lay the foundation for a standardized test protocol for use by device makers as well as regulators for the registration of such devices.

Is it time to re-evaluate exposure risks to quaternary ammonium compounds as disinfectants?

•The use of quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) as disinfectants has increased exponentially due to the COVID-19 pandemic.•There is, thus, a corresponding increase in human exposure to these compounds.•New studies reveal important human health concerns.•A re-evaluation of the use of these compounds is in order.•A change over to newer and safer products may bode well for the future.

Methods to assess environmental surface disinfectants against viruses: the quest and recommendations for a globally harmonized approach to microbicide testing.

Viruses pose a wide-ranging and significant risk to human health through acute and persistent infections that may confer risks for sequelae including musculoskeletal, immunological, and oncological disease. Infection prevention and control (IPAC) remains a highly effective, generic, global, and cost-effective means to mitigate virus spread. IPAC recommends proper disinfection of high-touch environmental surfaces (HITES) to reduce the risk of direct and indirect virus spread. The United States, Canada and many other countries mandate pre-market assessments of HITES disinfectants against viruses and other types of microbial pathogens. However, there are basic disparities in the regulation of disinfectants. Such incongruity in test protocols interferes with the determination of the true breadth of the microbicidal potential of a given product in the field where target pathogens are often unknown or may be encountered as mixtures. This review examines the various methodological disparities and recommends a more cohesive and harmonized approach. While there is particular emphasis on viruses here, an overall harmonization in microbicide testing of HITES disinfectants will greatly assist the numerous stakeholders involved in IPAC.

Mechanisms of action of microbicides commonly used in infection prevention and control.

SUMMARYUnderstanding how commonly used chemical microbicides affect pathogenic microorganisms is important for formulation of microbicides. This review focuses on the mechanism(s) of action of chemical microbicides commonly used in infection prevention and control. Contrary to the typical site-specific mode of action of antibiotics, microbicides often act via multiple targets, causing rapid and irreversible damage to microbes. In the case of viruses, the envelope or protein capsid is usually the primary structural target, resulting in loss of envelope integrity or denaturation of proteins in the capsid, causing loss of the receptor-binding domain for host cell receptors, and/or breakdown of other viral proteins or nucleic acids. However, for certain virucidal microbicides, the nucleic acid may be a significant site of action. The region of primary damage to the protein or nucleic acid is site-specific and may vary with the virus type. Due to their greater complexity and metabolism, bacteria and fungi offer more targets. The rapid and irreversible damage to microbes may result from solubilization of lipid components and denaturation of enzymes involved in the transport of nutrients. Formulation of microbicidal actives that attack multiple sites on microbes, or control of the pH, addition of preservatives or potentiators, and so on, can increase the spectrum of action against pathogens and reduce both the concentrations and times needed to achieve microbicidal activity against the target pathogens.

Environmental dissemination of respiratory viruses: dynamic interdependencies of respiratory droplets, aerosols, aerial particulates, environmental surfaces, and contribution of viral re-aerosolization.

During the recent pandemic of COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2), influential public health agencies such as the World Health Organization (WHO) and the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) have favored the view that SARS CoV-2 spreads predominantly via droplets. Many experts in aerobiology have openly opposed that stance, forcing a vigorous debate on the topic. In this review, we discuss the various proposed modes of viral transmission, stressing the interdependencies between droplet, aerosol, and fomite spread. Relative humidity and temperature prevailing determine the rates at which respiratory aerosols and droplets emitted from an expiratory event (sneezing, coughing, etc.) evaporate to form smaller droplets or aerosols, or experience hygroscopic growth. Gravitational settling of droplets may result in contamination of environmental surfaces (fomites). Depending upon human, animal and mechanical activities in the occupied space indoors, viruses deposited on environmental surfaces may be re-aerosolized (re-suspended) to contribute to aerosols, and can be conveyed on aerial particulate matter such as dust and allergens. The transmission of respiratory viruses may then best be viewed as resulting from dynamic virus spread from infected individuals to susceptible individuals by various physical states of active respiratory emissions, instead of the current paradigm that emphasizes separate dissemination by respiratory droplets, aerosols or by contaminated fomites. To achieve the optimum outcome in terms of risk mitigation and infection prevention and control (IPAC) during seasonal infection peaks, outbreaks, and pandemics, this holistic view emphasizes the importance of dealing with all interdependent transmission modalities, rather than focusing on one modality.

Aptamer-based impedimetric sensor for bacterial typing.

The development of an aptamer-based impedimetric sensor for typing of bacteria (AIST-B) is presented. Highly specific DNA aptamers to Salmonella enteritidis were selected via Cell-SELEX technique. Twelve rounds of selection were performed; each comprises a positive selection step against S. enteritidis and a negative selection step against a mixture of related pathogens, including Salmonella typhimurium, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Citrobacter freundii, to ensure the species-specificity of the selected aptamers. After sequencing of the pool showing the highest binding affinity to S. enteritidis, a DNA sequence of high affinity to the bacteria was integrated into an impedimetric sensor via self-assembly onto a gold nanoparticles-modified screen-printed carbon electrode (GNPs-SPCE). Remarkably, this aptasensor is highly selective and can successfully detect S. enteritidis down to 600 CFU mL(-1) (equivalent to 18 CFU in 30 µL assay volume) in 10 min and distinguish it from other Salmonella species, including S. typhimurium and S. choleraesuis. This report is envisaged to open a new venue for the aptamer-based typing of a variety of microorganisms using a rapid, economic, and label-free electrochemical platform.

Aptamer-based viability impedimetric sensor for bacteria.

The development of an aptamer-based viability impedimetric sensor for bacteria (AptaVISens-B) is presented. Highly specific DNA aptamers to live Salmonella typhimurium were selected via the cell-systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment (SELEX) technique. Twelve rounds of selection were performed; each comprises a positive selection step against viable S. typhimurium and a negative selection step against heat killed S. typhimurium and a mixture of related pathogens, including Salmonella enteritidis, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Citrobacter freundii to ensure the species specificity of the selected aptamers. The DNA sequence showing the highest binding affinity to the bacteria was further integrated into an impedimetric sensor via self-assembly onto a gold nanoparticle-modified screen-printed carbon electrode (GNP-SPCE). Remarkably, this aptasensor is highly selective and can successfully detect S. typhimurium down to 600 CFU mL(-1) (equivalent to 18 live cells in 30 µL of assay volume) and distinguish it from other Salmonella species, including S. enteritidis and S. choleraesuis. This report is envisaged to open a new venue for the aptamer-based viability sensing of a variety of microorganisms, particularly viable but nonculturable (VBNC) bacteria, using a rapid, economic, and label-free electrochemical platform.

Microarray assessment of virulence, antibiotic, and heavy metal resistance in an agricultural watershed creek.

Potential risks associated with impaired surface water quality have commonly been evaluated by indirect description of potential sources using various fecal microbial indicators and derived source-tracking methods. These approaches are valuable for assessing and monitoring the impacts of land-use changes and changes in management practices at the source of contamination. A more detailed evaluation of putative etiologically significant genetic determinants can add value to these assessments. We evaluated the utility of using a microarray that integrates virulence genes with antibiotic and heavy metal resistance genes to describe and discriminate among spatially and seasonally distinct water samples from an agricultural watershed creek in Eastern Ontario. Because microarray signals may be analyzed as binomial distributions, the significance of ambiguous signals can be easily evaluated by using available off-the-shelf software. The FAMD software was used to evaluate uncertainties in the signal data. Analysis of multilocus fingerprinting data sets containing missing data has shown that, for the tested system, any variability in microarray signals had a marginal effect on data interpretation. For the tested watershed, results suggest that in general the wet fall season increased the downstream detection of virulence and resistance genes. Thus, the tested microarray technique has the potential to rapidly describe the quality of surface waters and thus to provide a qualitative tool to augment quantitative microbial risk assessments.

First evidence of genotypes Ad3a16 and Ad3a18 in North America, obtained by genetic analysis of infectious human adenovirus from wastewaters of two urban communities in Canada.

A 1-year study found seven infectious human adenovirus serotypes, including Ad3, Ad31, Ad46, Ad27, Ad22, Ad51, and clinical clone PB3, in wastewaters of two major cities in Canada. Comparative genomic analysis revealed the existence of the reportedly highly contagious Ad3a16/18 genotypes. This is the first report of Ad3a16/18 genotypes in North America.

Clospore: a liquid medium for producing high titers of semi-purified spores of Clostridium difficile.

Clostridium difficile continues to cause infections in healthcare and other settings. Its spores survive well indoors and require sporicidal chemicals for infection control. However, proper testing of disinfectants is impeded due to difficulties in obtaining viable spores of high enough quality and titers to meet current regulations for sporicidal claims. A new liquid medium (Clospore) has been developed, based on a systematic review of the compositions of 20 other available media. C. difficile spores grown in the new medium and treated with a mixture of lysozyme and trypsin yielded final suspensions with > 10(9) CFU/mL of viable spores, with a purity of > 91% as tested by spore-staining and phase-contrast microscopy. The spores showed a biological decay rate of about 0.1 log10/month when dried on metal disks and stored indoors (air temperature 23 +/- 2 degrees C; relative humidity 52.76 +/- 15.08%). Heating the purified spore suspensions to 70 degrees C for 10 min to inactivate any vegetative cells showed no spore activation or inactivation. The spores could be stored for at least 14 months either refrigerated (4 degrees C) or frozen (-20 or -80 degrees C) in 50% (v/v) ethanol with virtually no loss in viability. The resistance of the enzyme-treated spores to three levels of sodium hypochlorite (1000, 3000, and 5000 ppm), using a standardized quantitative carrier test, was almost identical to that of the spores concentrated by centrifugation alone. The described procedure has been successfully applied to four standard (ATCC) and six clinical strains of C. difficile.

Highly sensitive magnetic-microparticle-based aptasensor for Cryptosporidium parvum oocyst detection in river water and wastewater: Effect of truncation on aptamer affinity.

Many methods have been reported to detect Cryptosporidium parvum (C. parvum) oocysts in the water environment using monoclonal antibodies. Herein, we report the use of DNA aptamers as an alternative ligand. We present the highly sensitive detection of C. parvum oocysts in wastewater samples based on aptamer-conjugated magnetic beads. A previously selected DNA aptamer (R4-6) that binds to C. parvum oocysts with high affinity and selectivity was rationally truncated into two minimer aptamers (Min_Crypto1 and Min_Crypto2), and conjugated to micro-magnetic beads. In flow cytometry tests with phosphate buffer, river water, and wastewater samples, both the minimers showed improved affinity and specificity toward C. parvum oocysts than the parent R4-6. Moreover, Min_Crypto2 showed higher affinity to its target than the parent aptamer when testing in wastewater, indicating superior binding properties in a complex matrix. Using a fluorescence microplate-based assay, and when incubated with different numbers of oocysts, Min_Crypto2 showed a limit of detection as low as 5 C. parvum oocysts in 300 µL of wastewater. Results described here indicate that Min_Crypto2 has superior specificity and sensitivity for the detection of C. parvum oocysts, and has a strong potential to be used successfully in a sensor.

Perceptions, Vulnerability and Adaptation Strategies for Mitigating Climate Change Effects among Small Livestock Herders in Punjab, Pakistan.

Pakistan is an agrarian nation that is among the most vulnerable countries to climatic variations. Around 20% of its GDP is produced by agriculture, and livestock-related production contributes more than half of this value. However, few empirical studies have been conducted to determine the vulnerability and knowledge of livestock herders, and particularly the smaller herders. Comprehending individual perceptions of and vulnerabilities to climate change (CC) will enable effective formulation of CC mitigation strategies. This study intended to explore individual perceptions of and vulnerabilities to CC based on a primary dataset of 405 small livestock herders from three agro-ecological zones of Punjab. The results showed that livestock herders' perceptions about temperature and rainfall variations/patterns coincide with the meteorological information of the study locations. The vulnerability indicators show that Dera Ghazi Khan district is more vulnerable than the other two zones because of high exposure and sensitivity to CC, and lower adaptive capacity. However, all zones experience regular livelihood risks due to livestock diseases and deaths resulting from extreme climatic conditions, lower economic status, and constrained institutional and human resource capabilities, thus leading to increased vulnerability. The results indicate that low-cost local approaches are needed, such as provision of improved veterinary services, increased availability of basic equipment, small-scale infrastructure projects, and reinforcement of informal social safety nets. These measures would support cost-effective and sustainable decisions to enable subsistence livestock herders to adopt climate smart practices.

Use of a mixture of surrogates for infectious bioagents in a standard approach to assessing disinfection of environmental surfaces.

We used a mixture of surrogates (Acinetobacter baumannii, Mycobacterium terrae, hepatitis A virus, and spores of Geobacillus stearothermophilus) for bioagents in a standardized approach to test environmental surface disinfectants. Each carrier containing 10 microl of mixture received 50 microl of a test chemical or saline at 22 +/- 2 degrees C. Disinfectant efficacy criteria were > or = 6 log(10) reduction for the bacteria and the spores and > or = 3 log(10) reduction for the virus. Peracetic acid (1,000 ppm) was effective in 5 min against the two bacteria and the spores but not against the virus. Chlorine dioxide (CD; 500 and 1,000 ppm) and domestic bleach (DB; 2,500, 3,500, and 5,000 ppm) were effective in 5 min, except for sporicidal activity, which needed 20 min of contact with either 1,000 ppm of CD or the two higher concentrations of DB.

Presentation and diagnosis of allergic fungal sinusitis.

BACKGROUND: Allergic fungal sinusitis (AFS) is a form of fungal disease that has recently been considered a distinct clinicopathologic entity. Other forms of fungal sinusitis include acute-fulminant (invasive), chronic indolent (invasive) and mycetoma (non-invasive). Objectives were to assess the presentation and to describe the diagnostic techniques for allergic fungal sinusitis in our setup. METHOD: Descriptive study was conducted in the Department of ENT and Head & Neck Surgery, Khyber Medical College and Khyber Teaching Hospital, Peshawar from January 2002 to April 2008. Twenty-three cases of allergic fungal sinusitis (ASF) were selected for the study. Data like, name, age, sex, address, clinical features, labs (Eosinophil count) and imaging studies (CT and/or MRI) were recorded, including the pre- and postoperative treatment, operative findings and postoperative results, recurrence of disease were also recorded. Surgical procedures were performed on all cases followed by medical treatment. RESULTS: Study revealed that AFS is a disease of younger age, mainly occurring in 2nd & 3rd decade of life, with male to female ratio 1:1.3. Allergic rhinitis (91%) and nasal polyposis (91%) were important associated factors. Nasal obstruction (96%), nasal discharge (91%), post-nasal discharge (87%) and unilateral multi sinus extension were important clinical features. Increased eosinophil count and increased IgE level was found in 78% cases. Histopathological analysis showed fungal hyphae in all cases and aspergillus was predominant organism on culture. Orbital erosion was seen in 78% and skull base erosion was observed in 9%. Recurrence of disease was seen in nine cases. CONCLUSION: Allergic fungal sinusitis (AFS) is a disease of young immunocompetent adults. Nasal obstruction, nasal discharge, nasal allergy and proptosis were the most common presentations. Initial diagnosis of allergic fungal sinusitis requires high index of suspicion in patients presenting with chronic rhinosinusitis, such cases should be properly evaluated. Differentiation from invasive forms of fungal sinus disease is crucial.

Combating SARS-CoV-2: leveraging microbicidal experiences with other emerging/re-emerging viruses.

The emergence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in Wuhan City, China, late in December 2019 is an example of an emerging zoonotic virus that threatens public health and international travel and commerce. When such a virus emerges, there is often insufficient specific information available on mechanisms of virus dissemination from animal-to-human or from person-to-person, on the level or route of infection transmissibility or of viral release in body secretions/excretions, and on the survival of virus in aerosols or on surfaces. The effectiveness of available virucidal agents and hygiene practices as interventions for disrupting the spread of infection and the associated diseases may not be clear for the emerging virus. In the present review, we suggest that approaches for infection prevention and control (IPAC) for SARS-CoV-2 and future emerging/re-emerging viruses can be invoked based on pre-existing data on microbicidal and hygiene effectiveness for related and unrelated enveloped viruses.