Don't stop focusing when it gets harder! The positive effects of focused attention on affective experience at high intensities.

Experiencing negative affect during exercise partially explains high levels of physical inactivity. An important direction for research is to better understand how and why interindividual differences in affective experiences occur while exercising. The dual-mode theory suggests that the interaction of cognitive processes and interoceptive cues influence the affective response. Hence, attentional control in form of adopting an external or internal attentional focus could lead to different affective responses depending on intensity. This study examines possible interactions between self-selected running intensities and attentional focus on affect. Fifty-eight inexperienced runners (30.14 ± 9.19 years; 38% female) ran 9 × 3 min outdoors around a large pond. While running at three intensities, they were instructed to focus on their breathing, on the environment, or did not receive an instruction. Dependent measures were affect, heart rate, and speed. The results revealed a significant interaction between attentional focus and intensity on affect (p = .01, η2p = .08). At subjectively perceived light intensity, participants' affective outcomes benefit from non-focusing attention, whereas during hard intensity the opposite seems helpful: to focus on breathing or to the environment. These findings shed new light on the interaction of focusing attention and running intensity to improve the affective experience.

Thinking about your running movement makes you less efficient: attentional focus effects on running economy and kinematics.

A number of studies have shown that attentional focus instructions can effect running economy. This study assessed spiroergometry, as well as running kinematics as a possible mechanism to explain these effects. Twelve runners had to focus their attention on either their running movement, their breathing or on a video while running on a treadmill at a set, submaximum speed. Spiroergometry and running kinematics were measured. Results revealed worse running economy in both internal focus conditions (breathing and movement) compared to the external focus condition (video), replicating previous findings. In addition, vertical oscillation during the running movement was elevated in the movement compared to the video condition, indicating a less efficient running style. No changes in kinematics were found for the breathing compared to the video condition. Therefore, consciously focusing on the running movement moves runners away from their optimised running pattern and leads to detriments in economy. The decreases in running economy in the breathing condition can be better explained by changes in breathing patterns.

Further Evidence for an External Focus of Attention in Running: Looking at Specific Focus Instructions and Individual Differences.

Although attentional focusing in sports has been broadly investigated, the findings vary when it comes to endurance sports. This study provides a comparison between relevant foci in the literature of running economy. These include two internal foci-one addressing automated processes (running movement) and the other nonautomated processes (internal body signals and perceived exertion), an external focus (video) and a control condition. Furthermore, we investigated the influence of interoceptive sensitivity on oxygen consumption within the different attention conditions. Thirty recreational runners performed a four 6-min run at moderate intensity consisting of the four counterbalanced conditions. Running economy was assessed by spiroergometry, and interoception was measured using a heartbeat tracking task. Results revealed a significantly better running economy for the external focus of attention compared with all other conditions. No significant correlations were observed between the heartbeat perception score and oxygen consumption in any condition.

Cognitive fatigue effects on physical performance during running.

This study investigated the effect of cognitive fatigue on physical performance in a paced running task. Experienced runners (n = 20) performed two 3,000-m runs on an indoor track, once after cognitive fatigue, and once under nonfatigued conditions. Completion times were significantly slower in the cognitive fatigue condition (M = 12:11,88 min, SD = 0:54,26), compared with the control condition (M = 11:58,56 min, SD = 0:48,39), F(1, 19) = 8.58, p = .009, eta2p = .31. There were no differences in heart rate, t(17) = 0.13, p > .05, blood lactate levels, t(19) = 1.19, p > .05, or ratings of perceived exertion F(1, 19) = .001, p > .05. While previous research has examined the impact of cognitive tasks on physical tasks, this is the first study to examine a self-paced physical task, showing that cognitive activity indeed contributes significantly to overall performance. Specifically, cognitive fatigue increased the perception of exertion, leading to lesser performance on the running task.

An internal focus of attention is not always as bad as its reputation: how specific aspects of internally focused attention do not hinder running efficiency.

The aim of this study was to examine differentiated effects of internally focused attention in endurance sports. Thirty-two active runners ran 24 min on a treadmill at a fixed speed of moderate intensity. For each 6-min block, participants had to direct their attention on different internal aspects (movement execution, breathing, or feeling of the body) or received no instructions. Oxygen consumption (VO2) was measured continuously to determine running economy. Results revealed that the different internal focus instructions had differentiated effects on VO2: A focus on breathing as well as a focus on the running movement led to higher VO2 than a focus on feeling of the body which showed similar VO2 as the control condition. We conclude that an internal focus of attention is solely detrimental to performance when directed to highly automated processes (e.g., breathing or movement). However, an internal focus on how the body feels during exercise does not disrupt movement efficiency.

Active or passive? Investigating different types of cognitive fatigue.

Research in cognitive fatigue has identified the negative impact that cognitive exertion can have on subsequent task performance. An underexamined question is whether there are different types of fatigue, particularly: active fatigue, similar to cognitive fatigue, and passive fatigue, similar to boredom. This online study examined whether active and passive fatigue can be elicited and differentiated using computerized cognitive tasks. We compared subjective and behavioural outcomes to look for distinctions between fatigue types in response to different cognitive tasks. A sample of 122 participants (53% male; age 30.04 ± 3.50 years) rated their subjective state before and after one of three 8-min cognitive task conditions (TloadDback, Mackworth Clock, Documentary/Control). Next, participants also completed a second cognitive task (Flanker task). The task expected to be actively fatiguing (TloadDback) was rated the most difficult, effortful, and mentally and temporally demanding. The task expected to be passively fatiguing (Mackworth Clock) had the greatest increases in subjective fatigue, boredom, and sleepiness, and the greatest decrease in "want-to" motivation. There were no differences between conditions for Flanker performance. We showed that different fatigue types could be elicited using different computerized cognitive tasks. The passively fatiguing task had the most negative influence on subjective fatigue and motivation, suggesting a nonengaging or "boringly fatiguing" task induces a more detrimental type of fatigue. A key next step is to examine longer cognitive tasks to determine whether effects from different fatigue types become more prominent with time-on-task. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Maintain your mind, maintain your focus: Effects of focused attention and intensity in experienced runners.

The intensity that people choose for their endurance activities has a major influence on their affective experience. Furthermore, the direction of attention (e.g., internal or external) during endurance activities may significantly influence performance and personal perceptions. Therefore, in the current study, we focus on the interaction between intensity and attentional focus. We aim to address the question of whether adopting an internal (IAF; breathing) or an external attentional focus (EAF; environment), compared to a control condition, leads in differences in speed, heart rate, and affect during running at different intensities in experienced runners. Data from 59 participants were analyzed (Mage: 26.95 (SD = 4.78) years; 34 male; 25 female). Participants ran 9 × 3 min in an outdoor park with three intensity conditions (light, somewhat hard, hard) and three attention conditions (internal, external, control). Intensity, but not attentional focus, impacted affective responses. Results revealed a significant interaction between attentional focus and intensity on heart rate (p < 0.001, ω2p = 0.199): during the somewhat hard intensity, the control focus condition was significantly lower compared the internal and external attentional focus conditions. Additionally, we used exploratory multilevel models (MLM). In the best-fitting MLM of heart rate, 45% of the variance is attributed to differences between athletes, and thus 55% of the variance within athletes. Furthermore, the model indicated that athletes running at a somewhat hard intensity and maintaining an EAF (b = 7.69) or IAF (b = 6.36) had an increase in heart rate compared to the control condition. We speculate that simultaneously monitoring effort and following an attentional instruction was such a difficult task that led to a favorable effect for the control condition. In practice, this could mean that the implementation of an unfamiliar focus of attention, for example, initially requires additional energy expenditure.

Attentional processes and choking under pressure.

The self-focus theory of choking under pressure explains decreases in performance of well-learned motor tasks with an increase in skill-focused attention. This shift in attentional focus has been demonstrated; however, specific propositions about the processes in pressure-induced attentional shift are yet to be developed. This study assesses whether specific aspects of movement execution attract more attention than others when movements are executed under pressure. Such elements are important in conscious movement control before execution becomes automated through practice; under pressure, attention may be redirected to these elements. Basketball free throws were executed by 22 junior national team members in a low and high pressure situation. Two dual task/focus conditions (related to different aspects of the movement) were implemented in each pressure condition. This dual task paradigm was used as a direct and detailed measure of skill focused attention, suitable to show specific pressure induced shifts of attention that lead to performance decrements. Pressure was induced by telling players that their performance would be evaluated by coaches. Players were defined as chokers if their performance decreased under this pressure. Chokers showed differences with regard to their attentional focus on movement execution in the pressure conditions compared to the players defined as non-chokers. The findings suggest that attentional shifts during choking can be related to specific aspects of movement execution.

Building a transdisciplinary expert consensus on the cognitive drivers of performance under pressure: An international multi-panel Delphi study.

Introduction: The ability to perform optimally under pressure is critical across many occupations, including the military, first responders, and competitive sport. Despite recognition that such performance depends on a range of cognitive factors, how common these factors are across performance domains remains unclear. The current study sought to integrate existing knowledge in the performance field in the form of a transdisciplinary expert consensus on the cognitive mechanisms that underlie performance under pressure. Methods: International experts were recruited from four performance domains [(i) Defense; (ii) Competitive Sport; (iii) Civilian High-stakes; and (iv) Performance Neuroscience]. Experts rated constructs from the Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) framework (and several expert-suggested constructs) across successive rounds, until all constructs reached consensus for inclusion or were eliminated. Finally, included constructs were ranked for their relative importance. Results: Sixty-eight experts completed the first Delphi round, with 94% of experts retained by the end of the Delphi process. The following 10 constructs reached consensus across all four panels (in order of overall ranking): (1) Attention; (2) Cognitive Control-Performance Monitoring; (3) Arousal and Regulatory Systems-Arousal; (4) Cognitive Control-Goal Selection, Updating, Representation, and Maintenance; (5) Cognitive Control-Response Selection and Inhibition/Suppression; (6) Working memory-Flexible Updating; (7) Working memory-Active Maintenance; (8) Perception and Understanding of Self-Self-knowledge; (9) Working memory-Interference Control, and (10) Expert-suggested-Shifting. Discussion: Our results identify a set of transdisciplinary neuroscience-informed constructs, validated through expert consensus. This expert consensus is critical to standardizing cognitive assessment and informing mechanism-targeted interventions in the broader field of human performance optimization.

The effect of attentional focus on running economy.

In research on motor control, the detrimental effect of an internal focus of attention on movement execution of well-learned motor skills is a frequently replicated finding. This experimental study was designed to determine whether this effect is observed with physiological variables during endurance exercise. We examined whether the focus of attention can influence running economy (oxygen consumption at a set running speed). Trained runners had to focus their attention on three different aspects while running on a treadmill. For three consecutive 10-min periods, runners concentrated on the running movement, on their breathing, and on their surroundings. Results showed an increased running economy in the external focus condition. In line with research on motor control, endurance sport also shows that an external focus of attention is better than an internal focus in terms of the physiological performance measure of oxygen consumption.

Beep Test Performance Is Influenced by 30 Minutes of Cognitive Work.

PURPOSE: This study explored conflicting findings in the literature on the influence of perceived cognitive fatigue on physical performance by testing the effect of the Stroop task (high cognitive load) on an intermittent running test (beep test). METHODS: In a within-subjects repeated-measures experiment, 13 active athletes performed the beep test on two occasions, in a randomized, counterbalanced order. In each session, a preceding cognitive task was completed for 30 min, with the incongruent Stroop task in the high load condition, and the congruent Stroop task in the low load condition. Perceived cognitive fatigue was measured before testing (baseline) and at 10, 20, and 30 min of the cognitive load manipulation. Perceived effort on the cognitive task and general motivation for the physical task (beep test) were measured before the beep test, and motivation-related perception of the beep test and ratings of perceived exertion were measured after completion of the test. Heart rate and beep test performance (completion stage and time) were also recorded. RESULTS: The incongruent Stroop task was perceived as more fatiguing and effortful. Participants also withdrew from the beep test significantly earlier in the high load condition (M = 8:48 min, SD = 2:32 min) compared to the low load condition (M = 9:20 min, SD = 2:28 min), F (1,11) = 21.76, P < 0.01, ŋ = 0.67. There were no differences in heart rate or general motivation between the two conditions. CONCLUSIONS: Whereas previous research shows that active athletes can maintain performance on the beep test after 10 min of the incongruent Stroop task, this study shows that performance is impaired after 30 min. Variables in need of exploration in future investigations include experience with both the physical and cognitive task.

Emotionality of Colors: An Implicit Link between Red and Dominance.

The color red has been shown to alter emotions, physiology, psychology, and behavior. Research has suggested that these alterations could possibly be due to a link between red and perceived dominance. In this study we examined if the color red is implicitly associated to the concept of dominance. In addition, we similarly hypothesized that blue is implicitly linked to rest. A modified Stroop word evaluation task was used in which 30 participants (23.07 ± 4.42 years) were asked to classify words shown in either red, blue, or gray (control condition), as being either dominant- or rest-related. The responses were recorded and analyzed for latency time and accuracy. The results revealed a significant word type × color interaction effect for both latency times, F(2,56) = 5.09, p = 0.009, [Formula: see text] = 0.15, and accuracy, F(1.614,45.193) = 8.57, p = 0.001, [Formula: see text] = 0.23. On average participants showed significantly shorter latency times and made less errors when categorizing dominance words shown in red, compared to blue and gray. The measured effects show strong evidence for an implicit red-dominance association and a partial red-rest disassociation. It is discussed that this association can possibly affect emotionality, with the presentation of red eliciting a dominant emotional and behavioral response.

An Internal Focus Leads to Longer Quiet Eye Durations in Novice Dart Players.

While the benefits of both an external focus of attention (FOA) and of a longer quiet eye (QE) duration have been well researched in a wide range of sporting activities, little is known about the interaction of these two phenomena and how a potential interaction might influence performance. It was this study's aim to investigate the interaction and potential effect on performance by using typical FOA instructions in a dart throwing task and examining both the QE and performance outcome. The results replicate neither the benefit of an external FOA nor the benefit of a longer QE duration. However, an interaction was observed, as QE was prolonged by an earlier onset and later offset in the internal focus condition only. As the typical effect of a performance benefit due to an external focus could not be replicated, the interaction must be interpreted with caution. The results are discussed and interpreted in light of the inhibition hypothesis and possible avenues for future research are suggested.