Transcriptome-wide regulation of pre-mRNA splicing and mRNA localization by muscleblind proteins.

The muscleblind-like (Mbnl) family of RNA-binding proteins plays important roles in muscle and eye development and in myotonic dystrophy (DM), in which expanded CUG or CCUG repeats functionally deplete Mbnl proteins. We identified transcriptome-wide functional and biophysical targets of Mbnl proteins in brain, heart, muscle, and myoblasts by using RNA-seq and CLIP-seq approaches. This analysis identified several hundred splicing events whose regulation depended on Mbnl function in a pattern indicating functional interchangeability between Mbnl1 and Mbnl2. A nucleotide resolution RNA map associated repression or activation of exon splicing with Mbnl binding near either 3' splice site or near the downstream 5' splice site, respectively. Transcriptomic analysis of subcellular compartments uncovered a global role for Mbnls in regulating localization of mRNAs in both mouse and Drosophila cells, and Mbnl-dependent translation and protein secretion were observed for a subset of mRNAs with Mbnl-dependent localization. These findings hold several new implications for DM pathogenesis.

Corrigendum: Cloche is a bHLH-PAS transcription factor that drives haemato-vascular specification.

This corrects the article DOI: 10.1038/nature18614.

Rational probe design for efficient rRNA depletion and improved metatranscriptomic analysis of human microbiomes.

The microbiota that colonize the human gut and other tissues are dynamic, varying both in composition and functional state between individuals and over time. Gene expression measurements can provide insights into microbiome composition and function. However, efficient and unbiased removal of microbial ribosomal RNA (rRNA) presents a barrier to acquiring metatranscriptomic data. Here we describe a probe set that achieves efficient enzymatic rRNA removal of complex human-associated microbial communities. We demonstrate that the custom probe set can be further refined through an iterative design process to efficiently deplete rRNA from a range of human microbiome samples. Using synthetic nucleic acid spike-ins, we show that the rRNA depletion process does not introduce substantial quantitative error in gene expression profiles. Successful rRNA depletion allows for efficient characterization of taxonomic and functional profiles, including during the development of the human gut microbiome. The pan-human microbiome enzymatic rRNA depletion probes described here provide a powerful tool for studying the transcriptional dynamics and function of the human microbiome.

Cloche is a bHLH-PAS transcription factor that drives haemato-vascular specification.

Vascular and haematopoietic cells organize into specialized tissues during early embryogenesis to supply essential nutrients to all organs and thus play critical roles in development and disease. At the top of the haemato-vascular specification cascade lies cloche, a gene that when mutated in zebrafish leads to the striking phenotype of loss of most endothelial and haematopoietic cells and a significant increase in cardiomyocyte numbers. Although this mutant has been analysed extensively to investigate mesoderm diversification and differentiation and continues to be broadly used as a unique avascular model, the isolation of the cloche gene has been challenging due to its telomeric location. Here we used a deletion allele of cloche to identify several new cloche candidate genes within this genomic region, and systematically genome-edited each candidate. Through this comprehensive interrogation, we succeeded in isolating the cloche gene and discovered that it encodes a PAS-domain-containing bHLH transcription factor, and that it is expressed in a highly specific spatiotemporal pattern starting during late gastrulation. Gain-of-function experiments show that it can potently induce endothelial gene expression. Epistasis experiments reveal that it functions upstream of etv2 and tal1, the earliest expressed endothelial and haematopoietic transcription factor genes identified to date. A mammalian cloche orthologue can also rescue blood vessel formation in zebrafish cloche mutants, indicating a highly conserved role in vertebrate vasculogenesis and haematopoiesis. The identification of this master regulator of endothelial and haematopoietic fate enhances our understanding of early mesoderm diversification and may lead to improved protocols for the generation of endothelial and haematopoietic cells in vivo and in vitro.

Endotype reversal as a novel strategy for screening drugs targeting familial Alzheimer's disease.

While amyloid-ß (Aß) plaques are considered a hallmark of Alzheimer's disease, clinical trials focused on targeting gamma secretase, an enzyme involved in aberrant Aß peptide production, have not led to amelioration of AD symptoms or synaptic dysregulation. Screening strategies based on mechanistic, multi-omics approaches that go beyond pathological readouts can aid in the evaluation of therapeutics. Using early-onset Alzheimer's (EOFAD) disease patient lineage PSEN1A246E iPSC-derived neurons, we performed RNA-seq to characterize AD-associated endotypes, which are in turn used as a screening evaluation metric for two gamma secretase drugs, the inhibitor Semagacestat and the modulator BPN-15606. We demonstrate that drug treatment partially restores the neuronal state while concomitantly inhibiting cell cycle re-entry and dedifferentiation endotypes to different degrees depending on the mechanism of gamma secretase engagement. Our endotype-centric screening approach offers a new paradigm by which candidate AD therapeutics can be evaluated for their overall ability to reverse disease endotypes.

mRNA Capture Sequencing and RT-qPCR for the Detection of Pathognomonic, Novel, and Secondary Fusion Transcripts in FFPE Tissue: A Sarcoma Showcase.

We assess the performance of mRNA capture sequencing to identify fusion transcripts in FFPE tissue of different sarcoma types, followed by RT-qPCR confirmation. To validate our workflow, six positive control tumors with a specific chromosomal rearrangement were analyzed using the TruSight RNA Pan-Cancer Panel. Fusion transcript calling by FusionCatcher confirmed these aberrations and enabled the identification of both fusion gene partners and breakpoints. Next, whole-transcriptome TruSeq RNA Exome sequencing was applied to 17 fusion gene-negative alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma (ARMS) or undifferentiated round cell sarcoma (URCS) tumors, for whom fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) did not identify the classical pathognomonic rearrangements. For six patients, a pathognomonic fusion transcript was readily detected, i.e., PAX3-FOXO1 in two ARMS patients, and EWSR1-FLI1, EWSR1-ERG, or EWSR1-NFATC2 in four URCS patients. For the 11 remaining patients, 11 newly identified fusion transcripts were confirmed by RT-qPCR, including COPS3-TOM1L2, NCOA1-DTNB, WWTR1-LINC01986, PLAA-MOB3B, AP1B1-CHEK2, and BRD4-LEUTX fusion transcripts in ARMS patients. Additionally, recurrently detected secondary fusion transcripts in patients diagnosed with EWSR1-NFATC2-positive sarcoma were confirmed (COPS4-TBC1D9, PICALM-SYTL2, SMG6-VPS53, and UBE2F-ALS2). In conclusion, this study shows that mRNA capture sequencing enhances the detection rate of pathognomonic fusions and enables the identification of novel and secondary fusion transcripts in sarcomas.

Comprehensive viral enrichment enables sensitive respiratory virus genomic identification and analysis by next generation sequencing.

Next generation sequencing (NGS) technologies have revolutionized the genomics field and are becoming more commonplace for identification of human infectious diseases. However, due to the low abundance of viral nucleic acids (NAs) in relation to host, viral identification using direct NGS technologies often lacks sufficient sensitivity. Here, we describe an approach based on two complementary enrichment strategies that significantly improves the sensitivity of NGS-based virus identification. To start, we developed two sets of DNA probes to enrich virus NAs associated with respiratory diseases. The first set of probes spans the genomes, allowing for identification of known viruses and full genome sequencing, while the second set targets regions conserved among viral families or genera, providing the ability to detect both known and potentially novel members of those virus groups. Efficiency of enrichment was assessed by NGS testing reference virus and clinical samples with known infection. We show significant improvement in viral identification using enriched NGS compared to unenriched NGS. Without enrichment, we observed an average of 0.3% targeted viral reads per sample. However, after enrichment, 50%-99% of the reads per sample were the targeted viral reads for both the reference isolates and clinical specimens using both probe sets. Importantly, dramatic improvements on genome coverage were also observed following virus-specific probe enrichment. The methods described here provide improved sensitivity for virus identification by NGS, allowing for a more comprehensive analysis of disease etiology.

Bead-linked transposomes enable a normalization-free workflow for NGS library preparation.

BACKGROUND: Transposome-based technologies have enabled the streamlined production of sequencer-ready DNA libraries; however, current methods are highly sensitive to the amount and quality of input nucleic acid. RESULTS: We describe a new library preparation technology (Nextera DNA Flex) that utilizes a known concentration of transposomes conjugated directly to beads to bind a fixed amount of DNA, and enables direct input of blood and saliva using an integrated extraction protocol. We further report results from libraries generated outside the standard parameters of the workflow, highlighting novel applications for Nextera DNA Flex, including human genome builds and variant calling from below 1 ng DNA input, customization of insert size, and preparation of libraries from short fragments and severely degraded FFPE samples. Using this bead-linked library preparation method, library yield saturation was observed at an input amount of 100 ng. Preparation of libraries from a range of species with varying GC levels demonstrated uniform coverage of small genomes. For large and complex genomes, coverage across the genome, including difficult regions, was improved compared with other library preparation methods. Libraries were successfully generated from amplicons of varying sizes (from 50 bp to 11 kb), however, a decrease in efficiency was observed for amplicons smaller than 250 bp. This library preparation method was also compatible with poor-quality DNA samples, with sequenceable libraries prepared from formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded samples with varying levels of degradation. CONCLUSIONS: In contrast to solution-based library preparation, this bead-based technology produces a normalized, sequencing-ready library for a wide range of DNA input types and amounts, largely obviating the need for DNA quantitation. The robustness of this bead-based library preparation kit and flexibility of input DNA facilitates application across a wide range of fields.

Molecular Evidence of Sexual Transmission of Ebola Virus.

A suspected case of sexual transmission from a male survivor of Ebola virus disease (EVD) to his female partner (the patient in this report) occurred in Liberia in March 2015. Ebola virus (EBOV) genomes assembled from blood samples from the patient and a semen sample from the survivor were consistent with direct transmission. The genomes shared three substitutions that were absent from all other Western African EBOV sequences and that were distinct from the last documented transmission chain in Liberia before this case. Combined with epidemiologic data, the genomic analysis provides evidence of sexual transmission of EBOV and evidence of the persistence of infective EBOV in semen for 179 days or more after the onset of EVD. (Funded by the Defense Threat Reduction Agency and others.).

The genome of the vervet (Chlorocebus aethiops sabaeus).

We describe a genome reference of the African green monkey or vervet (Chlorocebus aethiops). This member of the Old World monkey (OWM) superfamily is uniquely valuable for genetic investigations of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), for which it is the most abundant natural host species, and of a wide range of health-related phenotypes assessed in Caribbean vervets (C. a. sabaeus), whose numbers have expanded dramatically since Europeans introduced small numbers of their ancestors from West Africa during the colonial era. We use the reference to characterize the genomic relationship between vervets and other primates, the intra-generic phylogeny of vervet subspecies, and genome-wide structural variations of a pedigreed C. a. sabaeus population. Through comparative analyses with human and rhesus macaque, we characterize at high resolution the unique chromosomal fission events that differentiate the vervets and their close relatives from most other catarrhine primates, in whom karyotype is highly conserved. We also provide a summary of transposable elements and contrast these with the rhesus macaque and human. Analysis of sequenced genomes representing each of the main vervet subspecies supports previously hypothesized relationships between these populations, which range across most of sub-Saharan Africa, while uncovering high levels of genetic diversity within each. Sequence-based analyses of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) polymorphisms reveal extremely low diversity in Caribbean C. a. sabaeus vervets, compared to vervets from putatively ancestral West African regions. In the C. a. sabaeus research population, we discover the first structural variations that are, in some cases, predicted to have a deleterious effect; future studies will determine the phenotypic impact of these variations.

Mammalian microRNAs: experimental evaluation of novel and previously annotated genes.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small regulatory RNAs that derive from distinctive hairpin transcripts. To learn more about the miRNAs of mammals, we sequenced 60 million small RNAs from mouse brain, ovary, testes, embryonic stem cells, three embryonic stages, and whole newborns. Analysis of these sequences confirmed 398 annotated miRNA genes and identified 108 novel miRNA genes. More than 150 previously annotated miRNAs and hundreds of candidates failed to yield sequenced RNAs with miRNA-like features. Ectopically expressing these previously proposed miRNA hairpins also did not yield small RNAs, whereas ectopically expressing the confirmed and newly identified hairpins usually did yield small RNAs with the classical miRNA features, including dependence on the Drosha endonuclease for processing. These experiments, which suggest that previous estimates of conserved mammalian miRNAs were inflated, provide a substantially revised list of confidently identified murine miRNAs from which to infer the general features of mammalian miRNAs. Our analyses also revealed new aspects of miRNA biogenesis and modification, including tissue-specific strand preferences, sequential Dicer cleavage of a metazoan precursor miRNA (pre-miRNA), consequential 5' heterogeneity, newly identified instances of miRNA editing, and evidence for widespread pre-miRNA uridylation reminiscent of miRNA regulation by Lin28.

RNA sequencing of esophageal adenocarcinomas identifies novel fusion transcripts, including NPC1-MELK, arising from a complex chromosomal rearrangement.

BACKGROUND: Studies of chromosomal rearrangements and fusion transcripts have elucidated mechanisms of tumorigenesis and led to targeted cancer therapies. This study was aimed at identifying novel fusion transcripts in esophageal adenocarcinoma (EAC). METHODS: To identify new fusion transcripts associated with EAC, targeted RNA sequencing and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) verification were performed in 40 EACs and matched nonmalignant specimens from the same patients. Genomic PCR and Sanger sequencing were performed to find the breakpoint of fusion genes. RESULTS: Five novel in-frame fusion transcripts were identified and verified in 40 EACs and in a validation cohort of 15 additional EACs (55 patients in all): fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 (FGFR2)-GRB2-associated binding protein 2 (GAB2) in 2 of 55 or 3.6%, Niemann-Pick C1 (NPC1)-maternal embryonic leucine zipper kinase (MELK) in 2 of 55 or 3.6%, ubiquitin-specific peptidase 54 (USP54)-calcium/calmodulin dependent protein kinase II γ (CAMK2G) in 2 of 55 or 3.6%, megakaryoblastic leukemia (translocation) 1 (MKL1)-fibulin 1 (FBLN1) in 1 of 55 or 1.8%, and CCR4-NOT transcription complex subunit 2 (CNOT2)-chromosome 12 open reading frame 49 (C12orf49) in 1 of 55 or 1.8%. A genomic analysis indicated that NPC1-MELK arose from a complex interchromosomal translocation event involving chromosomes 18, 3, and 9 with 3 rearrangement points, and this was consistent with chromoplexy. CONCLUSIONS: These data indicate that fusion transcripts occur at a stable frequency in EAC. Furthermore, our results indicate that chromoplexy is an underlying mechanism that generates fusion transcripts in EAC. These and other fusion transcripts merit further study as diagnostic markers and potential therapeutic targets in EAC. Cancer 2017;123:3916-24. © 2017 American Cancer Society.

Cohesin-mediated interactions organize chromosomal domain architecture.

To ensure proper gene regulation within constrained nuclear space, chromosomes facilitate access to transcribed regions, while compactly packaging all other information. Recent studies revealed that chromosomes are organized into megabase-scale domains that demarcate active and inactive genetic elements, suggesting that compartmentalization is important for genome function. Here, we show that very specific long-range interactions are anchored by cohesin/CTCF sites, but not cohesin-only or CTCF-only sites, to form a hierarchy of chromosomal loops. These loops demarcate topological domains and form intricate internal structures within them. Post-mitotic nuclei deficient for functional cohesin exhibit global architectural changes associated with loss of cohesin/CTCF contacts and relaxation of topological domains. Transcriptional analysis shows that this cohesin-dependent perturbation of domain organization leads to widespread gene deregulation of both cohesin-bound and non-bound genes. Our data thereby support a role for cohesin in the global organization of domain structure and suggest that domains function to stabilize the transcriptional programmes within them.

From single-cell to cell-pool transcriptomes: stochasticity in gene expression and RNA splicing.

Single-cell RNA-seq mammalian transcriptome studies are at an early stage in uncovering cell-to-cell variation in gene expression, transcript processing and editing, and regulatory module activity. Despite great progress recently, substantial challenges remain, including discriminating biological variation from technical noise. Here we apply the SMART-seq single-cell RNA-seq protocol to study the reference lymphoblastoid cell line GM12878. By using spike-in quantification standards, we estimate the absolute number of RNA molecules per cell for each gene and find significant variation in total mRNA content: between 50,000 and 300,000 transcripts per cell. We directly measure technical stochasticity by a pool/split design and find that there are significant differences in expression between individual cells, over and above technical variation. Specific gene coexpression modules were preferentially expressed in subsets of individual cells, including one enriched for mRNA processing and splicing factors. We assess cell-to-cell variation in alternative splicing and allelic bias and report evidence of significant differences in splice site usage that exceed splice variation in the pool/split comparison. Finally, we show that transcriptomes from small pools of 30-100 cells approach the information content and reproducibility of contemporary RNA-seq from large amounts of input material. Together, our results define an experimental and computational path forward for analyzing gene expression in rare cell types and cell states.

Systematic mapping of occluded genes by cell fusion reveals prevalence and stability of cis-mediated silencing in somatic cells.

Both diffusible factors acting in trans and chromatin components acting in cis are implicated in gene regulation, but the extent to which either process causally determines a cell's transcriptional identity is unclear. We recently used cell fusion to define a class of silent genes termed "cis-silenced" (or "occluded") genes, which remain silent even in the presence of trans-acting transcriptional activators. We further showed that occlusion of lineage-inappropriate genes plays a critical role in maintaining the transcriptional identities of somatic cells. Here, we present, for the first time, a comprehensive map of occluded genes in somatic cells. Specifically, we mapped occluded genes in mouse fibroblasts via fusion to a dozen different rat cell types followed by whole-transcriptome profiling. We found that occluded genes are highly prevalent and stable in somatic cells, representing a sizeable fraction of silent genes. Occluded genes are also highly enriched for important developmental regulators of alternative lineages, consistent with the role of occlusion in safeguarding cell identities. Alongside this map, we also present whole-genome maps of DNA methylation and eight other chromatin marks. These maps uncover a complex relationship between chromatin state and occlusion. Furthermore, we found that DNA methylation functions as the memory of occlusion in a subset of occluded genes, while histone deacetylation contributes to the implementation but not memory of occlusion. Our data suggest that the identities of individual cell types are defined largely by the occlusion status of their genomes. The comprehensive reference maps reported here provide the foundation for future studies aimed at understanding the role of occlusion in development and disease.

Comprehensive analysis of RNA-protein interactions by high-throughput sequencing-RNA affinity profiling.

RNA-protein interactions play critical roles in gene regulation, but methods to quantitatively analyze these interactions at a large scale are lacking. We have developed a high-throughput sequencing-RNA affinity profiling (HiTS-RAP) assay by adapting a high-throughput DNA sequencer to quantify the binding of fluorescently labeled protein to millions of RNAs anchored to sequenced cDNA templates. Using HiTS-RAP, we measured the affinity of mutagenized libraries of GFP-binding and NELF-E-binding aptamers to their respective targets and identified critical regions of interaction. Mutations additively affected the affinity of the NELF-E-binding aptamer, whose interaction depended mainly on a single-stranded RNA motif, but not that of the GFP aptamer, whose interaction depended primarily on secondary structure.

Complete genome sequence of a KI polyomavirus isolated from an otherwise healthy child with severe lower respiratory tract infection.

Unbiased, deep sequencing of a nasal specimen from an otherwise healthy 13-month-old boy hospitalized in intensive care revealed high gene expression and the complete genome of a novel isolate of KI polyomavirus (KIPyV). Further investigation detected minimal gene expression of additional viruses, suggesting that KIPyV was potentially the causal agent. Analysis of the complete genome of isolate NMKI001 revealed it is different from all previously reported genomes and contains two amino acid differences as compared to the closest virus isolate, Stockholm 380 (EF127908). J. Med. Virol. 89:926-930, 2017. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Tissue-specific transcriptome sequencing analysis expands the non-human primate reference transcriptome resource (NHPRTR).

The non-human primate reference transcriptome resource (NHPRTR, available online at http://nhprtr.org/) aims to generate comprehensive RNA-seq data from a wide variety of non-human primates (NHPs), from lemurs to hominids. In the 2012 Phase I of the NHPRTR project, 19 billion fragments or 3.8 terabases of transcriptome sequences were collected from pools of ∼ 20 tissues in 15 species and subspecies. Here we describe a major expansion of NHPRTR by adding 10.1 billion fragments of tissue-specific RNA-seq data. For this effort, we selected 11 of the original 15 NHP species and subspecies and constructed total RNA libraries for the same ∼ 15 tissues in each. The sequence quality is such that 88% of the reads align to human reference sequences, allowing us to compute the full list of expression abundance across all tissues for each species, using the reads mapped to human genes. This update also includes improved transcript annotations derived from RNA-seq data for rhesus and cynomolgus macaques, two of the most commonly used NHP models and additional RNA-seq data compiled from related projects. Together, these comprehensive reference transcriptomes from multiple primates serve as a valuable community resource for genome annotation, gene dynamics and comparative functional analysis.

Genome, epigenome and RNA sequences of monozygotic twins discordant for multiple sclerosis.

Monozygotic or 'identical' twins have been widely studied to dissect the relative contributions of genetics and environment in human diseases. In multiple sclerosis (MS), an autoimmune demyelinating disease and common cause of neurodegeneration and disability in young adults, disease discordance in monozygotic twins has been interpreted to indicate environmental importance in its pathogenesis. However, genetic and epigenetic differences between monozygotic twins have been described, challenging the accepted experimental model in disambiguating the effects of nature and nurture. Here we report the genome sequences of one MS-discordant monozygotic twin pair, and messenger RNA transcriptome and epigenome sequences of CD4(+) lymphocytes from three MS-discordant, monozygotic twin pairs. No reproducible differences were detected between co-twins among approximately 3.6 million single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) or approximately 0.2 million insertion-deletion polymorphisms. Nor were any reproducible differences observed between siblings of the three twin pairs in HLA haplotypes, confirmed MS-susceptibility SNPs, copy number variations, mRNA and genomic SNP and insertion-deletion genotypes, or the expression of approximately 19,000 genes in CD4(+) T cells. Only 2 to 176 differences in the methylation of approximately 2 million CpG dinucleotides were detected between siblings of the three twin pairs, in contrast to approximately 800 methylation differences between T cells of unrelated individuals and several thousand differences between tissues or between normal and cancerous tissues. In the first systematic effort to estimate sequence variation among monozygotic co-twins, we did not find evidence for genetic, epigenetic or transcriptome differences that explained disease discordance. These are the first, to our knowledge, female, twin and autoimmune disease individual genome sequences reported.

PRG-1 and 21U-RNAs interact to form the piRNA complex required for fertility in C. elegans.

In metazoans, Piwi-related Argonaute proteins have been linked to germline maintenance, and to a class of germline-enriched small RNAs termed piRNAs. Here we show that an abundant class of 21 nucleotide small RNAs (21U-RNAs) are expressed in the C. elegans germline, interact with the C. elegans Piwi family member PRG-1, and depend on PRG-1 activity for their accumulation. The PRG-1 protein is expressed throughout development and localizes to nuage-like structures called P granules. Although 21U-RNA loci share a conserved upstream sequence motif, the mature 21U-RNAs are not conserved and, with few exceptions, fail to exhibit complementarity or evidence for direct regulation of other expressed sequences. Our findings demonstrate that 21U-RNAs are the piRNAs of C. elegans and link this class of small RNAs and their associated Piwi Argonaute to the maintenance of temperature-dependent fertility.