Differences in the expression of SPI-1 genes pathogenicity and epidemiology between the emerging Salmonella enterica serovar Infantis and the model Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium.

BACKGROUND: Salmonella enterica serovar Infantis (S. Infantis) is one of the ubiquitous serovars of the bacterial pathogen S. enterica and recently has been emerging in many countries worldwide. Nonetheless, not much is known about its epidemiology, host adaptation, and virulence. METHODS: Epidemiological and molecular approaches were used together with tissue-culture and mouse models to conduct phenotypic comparison with the model S. enterica serovar Typhimurium. RESULTS: We show that S. Infantis is more frequently associated with infections in infants <2 years old and prone to cause significantly less invasive infections than serovar Typhimurium. Moreover, although S. Infantis adheres better to host cells and highly colonizes mouse intestines soon after infection, it is significantly less invasive and induces much lower inflammation and disease in vivo than S. Typhimurium. These differences were associated with lower expression of Salmonella pathogenicity island (SPI) 1 genes in S. Infantis than in S. Typhimurium. CONCLUSIONS: Our results demonstrate previously unknown differences in the epidemiology, virulence pathway expression, and pathogenicity between two highly abundant Salmonella serovars and suggest that native variation in the expression of the SPI-1 regulon is likely to contribute to epidemiological and virulence variation between genetically similar nontyphoidal Salmonella serovars.

Surface-Associated Lipoproteins Link Enterococcus faecalis Virulence to Colitogenic Activity in IL-10-Deficient Mice Independent of Their Expression Levels.

The commensal Enterococcus faecalis is among the most common causes of nosocomial infections. Recent findings regarding increased abundance of enterococci in the intestinal microbiota of patients with inflammatory bowel diseases and induction of colitis in IL-10-deficient (IL-10-/-) mice put a new perspective on the contribution of E. faecalis to chronic intestinal inflammation. Based on the expression of virulence-related genes in the inflammatory milieu of IL-10-/- mice using RNA-sequencing analysis, we characterized the colitogenic role of two bacterial structures that substantially impact on E. faecalis virulence by different mechanisms: the enterococcal polysaccharide antigen and cell surface-associated lipoproteins. Germ-free wild type and IL-10-/- mice were monoassociated with E. faecalis wild type OG1RF or the respective isogenic mutants for 16 weeks. Intestinal tissue and mesenteric lymph nodes (MLN) were collected to characterize tissue pathology, loss of intestinal barrier function, bacterial adhesion to intestinal epithelium and immune cell activation. Bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (BMDC) were stimulated with bacterial lysates and E. faecalis virulence was additionally investigated in three invertebrate models. Colitogenic activity of wild type E. faecalis (OG1RF score: 7.2±1.2) in monoassociated IL-10-/- mice was partially impaired in E. faecalis lacking enterococcal polysaccharide antigen (ΔepaB score: 4.7±2.3; p<0.05) and was almost completely abrogated in E. faecalis deficient for lipoproteins (Δlgt score: 2.3±2.3; p<0.0001). Consistently both E. faecalis mutants showed significantly impaired virulence in Galleria mellonella and Caenorhabditis elegans. Loss of E-cadherin in the epithelium was shown for all bacterial strains in inflamed IL-10-/- but not wild type mice. Inactivation of epaB in E. faecalis reduced microcolony and biofilm formation in vitro, altered bacterial adhesion to intestinal epithelium of germ-free Manduca sexta larvae and impaired penetration into the colonic mucus layer of IL-10-/- mice. Lipoprotein-deficient E. faecalis exhibited an impaired TLR2-mediated activation of BMDCs in vitro despite their ability to fully reactivate MLN cells as well as MLN-derived colitogenic T cells ex vivo. E. faecalis virulence factors accounting for bacterial adhesion to mucosal surfaces as well as intestinal barrier disruption partially contribute to colitogenic activity of E. faecalis. Beyond their well-known role in infections, cell surface-associated lipoproteins are essential structures for colitogenic activity of E. faecalis by mediating innate immune cell activation.

Expression of the Blood-Group-Related Gene B4galnt2 Alters Susceptibility to Salmonella Infection.

Glycans play important roles in host-microbe interactions. Tissue-specific expression patterns of the blood group glycosyltransferase ß-1,4-N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase 2 (B4galnt2) are variable in wild mouse populations, and loss of B4galnt2 expression is associated with altered intestinal microbiota. We hypothesized that variation in B4galnt2 expression alters susceptibility to intestinal pathogens. To test this, we challenged mice genetically engineered to express different B4galnt2 tissue-specific patterns with a Salmonella Typhimurium infection model. We found B4galnt2 intestinal expression was strongly associated with bacterial community composition and increased Salmonella susceptibility as evidenced by increased intestinal inflammatory cytokines and infiltrating immune cells. Fecal transfer experiments demonstrated a crucial role of the B4galnt2-dependent microbiota in conferring susceptibility to intestinal inflammation, while epithelial B4galnt2 expression facilitated epithelial invasion of S. Typhimurium. These data support a critical role for B4galnt2 in gastrointestinal infections. We speculate that B4galnt2-specific differences in host susceptibility to intestinal pathogens underlie the strong signatures of balancing selection observed at the B4galnt2 locus in wild mouse populations.

A unique megaplasmid contributes to stress tolerance and pathogenicity of an emergent Salmonella enterica serovar Infantis strain.

Of all known Salmonella enterica serovars, S. Infantis is one of the most commonly isolated and has been recently emerging worldwide. To understand the recent emergence of S. Infantis in Israel, we performed extensive comparative analyses between pre-emergent and the clonal emergent S. Infantis populations. We demonstrate the fixation of adaptive mutations in the DNA gyrase (gyrA) and nitroreductase (nfsA) genes, conferring resistance to quinolones and nitrofurans, respectively, and the carriage of an emergent-specific plasmid, designated pESI. This self-transferred episome is a mosaic megaplasmid (∼280 kb), which increases bacterial tolerance to environmental mercury (mer operon) and oxidative stress, and provides further resistance to tetracycline, sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim, most likely due to the presence of tetRA, sulI and dfrA genes respectively. Moreover, pESI carries the yersiniabactin siderophore system and two novel chaperone-usher fimbriae. In vitro studies established that pESI conjugation into a plasmidless S. Infantis strain results in superior biofilm formation, adhesion and invasion into avian and mammalian host cells. In vivo mouse infections demonstrated higher pathogenicity and increased intestinal inflammation caused by an S. Infantis strain harboring pESI compared with the plasmidless parental strain. Our results indicate that the presence of pESI that was found only in the emergent population of S. Infantis in Israel contributes significantly to antimicrobials tolerance and pathogenicity of its carrier. It is highly likely that pESI plays a key role in the successful spread of the emergent clone that replaced the local S. Infantis community in the short time of only 2-3 years.

Republished: bacterial proteases in IBD and IBS.

Proteases play a decisive role in health and disease. They fulfil diverse functions and have been associated with the pathology of gastrointestinal disorders such as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). The current knowledge focuses on host-derived proteases including matrix metalloproteinases, various serine proteases and cathepsins. The possible contribution of bacterial proteases has been largely ignored in the pathogenesis of IBD and IBS, although there is increasing evidence, especially demonstrated for proteases from pathogenic bacteria. The underlying mechanisms extend to proteases from commensal bacteria which may be relevant for disease susceptibility. The intestinal microbiota and its proteolytic capacity exhibit the potential to contribute to the pathogenesis of IBD and IBS. This review highlights the relevance of host- and bacteria-derived proteases and their signalling mechanisms.

Bacterial proteases in IBD and IBS.

Proteases play a decisive role in health and disease. They fulfil diverse functions and have been associated with the pathology of gastrointestinal disorders such as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). The current knowledge focuses on host-derived proteases including matrix metalloproteinases, various serine proteases and cathepsins. The possible contribution of bacterial proteases has been largely ignored in the pathogenesis of IBD and IBS, although there is increasing evidence, especially demonstrated for proteases from pathogenic bacteria. The underlying mechanisms extend to proteases from commensal bacteria which may be relevant for disease susceptibility. The intestinal microbiota and its proteolytic capacity exhibit the potential to contribute to the pathogenesis of IBD and IBS. This review highlights the relevance of host- and bacteria-derived proteases and their signalling mechanisms.

Enterococcus faecalis metalloprotease compromises epithelial barrier and contributes to intestinal inflammation.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Matrix metalloproteases (MMPs) mediate pathogenesis of chronic intestinal inflammation. We characterized the role of the gelatinase (GelE), a metalloprotease from Enterococcus faecalis, in the development of colitis in mice. METHODS: Germ-free, interleukin-10-deficient (IL-10(-/-)) mice were monoassociated with the colitogenic E faecalis strain OG1RF and isogenic, GelE-mutant strains. Barrier function was determined by measuring E-cadherin expression, transepithelial electrical resistance (TER), and translocation of permeability markers in colonic epithelial cells and colon segments from IL-10(-/-) and TNF(ΔARE/Wt) mice. GelE specificity was shown with the MMP inhibitor marimastat. RESULTS: Histologic analysis (score 0-4) of E faecalis monoassociated IL-10(-/-) mice revealed a significant reduction in colonic tissue inflammation in the absence of bacteria-derived GelE. We identified cleavage sites for GelE in the sequence of recombinant mouse E-cadherin, indicating that it might be degraded by GelE. Experiments with Ussing chambers and purified GelE revealed the loss of barrier function and extracellular E-cadherin in mice susceptible to intestinal inflammation (IL-10(-/-) and TNF(ΔARE/Wt) mice) before inflammation developed. Colonic epithelial cells had reduced TER and increased translocation of permeability markers after stimulation with GelE from OG1RF or strains of E faecalis isolated from patients with Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. CONCLUSIONS: The metalloprotease GelE, produced by commensal strains of E faecalis, contributes to development of chronic intestinal inflammation in mice that are susceptible to intestinal inflammation (IL-10(-/-) and TNF(ΔARE/Wt) mice) by impairing epithelial barrier integrity.

B4galnt2-mediated host glycosylation influences the susceptibility to Citrobacter rodentium infection.

Histo-blood group antigens in the intestinal mucosa play important roles in host-microbe interactions and modulate the susceptibility to enteric pathogens. The B4galnt2 gene, expressed in the GI tract of most mammals, including humans, encodes a beta-1,4-N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase enzyme which catalyzes the last step in the biosynthesis of the Sd(a) and Cad blood group antigens by adding an N-acetylgalactosamine (GalNAc) residue to the precursor molecules. In our study, we found that loss of B4galnt2 expression is associated with increased susceptibility to Citrobacter rodentium infection, a murine model pathogen for human enteropathogenic Escherichia coli. We observed increased histopathological changes upon C. rodentium infection in mice lacking B4galnt2 compared to B4galnt2-expressing wild-type mice. In addition, wild-type mice cleared the C. rodentium infection faster than B4galnt2-/- knockout mice. It is known that C. rodentium uses its type 1 fimbriae adhesive subunit to bind specifically to D-mannose residues on mucosal cells. Flow cytometry analysis of intestinal epithelial cells showed the absence of GalNAc-modified glycans but an increase in mannosylated glycans in B4galnt2-deficient mice compared to B4galnt2-sufficient mice. Adhesion assays using intestinal epithelial organoid-derived monolayers revealed higher C. rodentium adherence to cells lacking B4galnt2 expression compared to wild-type cells which in turn was reduced in the absence of type I fimbriae. In summary, we show that B4galnt2 expression modulates the susceptibility to C. rodentium infection, which is partly mediated by fimbriae-mannose interaction.

Persistent Salmonella enterica Serovar Typhimurium Infection Induces Protease Expression During Intestinal Fibrosis.

BACKGROUND: Intestinal fibrosis is a common and serious complication of Crohn's disease characterized by the accumulation of fibroblasts, deposition of extracellular matrix, and formation of scar tissue. Although many factors including cytokines and proteases contribute to the development of intestinal fibrosis, the initiating mechanisms and the complex interplay between these factors remain unclear. METHODS: Chronic infection of mice with Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium was used to induce intestinal fibrosis. A murine protease-specific CLIP-CHIP microarray analysis was employed to assess regulation of proteases and protease inhibitors. To confirm up- or downregulation during fibrosis, we performed quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and immunohistochemical stainings in mouse tissue and tissue from patients with inflammatory bowel disease. In vitro infections were used to demonstrate a direct effect of bacterial infection in the regulation of proteases. RESULTS: Mice develop severe and persistent intestinal fibrosis upon chronic infection with Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium, mimicking the pathology of human disease. Microarray analyses revealed 56 up- and 40 downregulated proteases and protease inhibitors in fibrotic cecal tissue. Various matrix metalloproteases, serine proteases, cysteine proteases, and protease inhibitors were regulated in the fibrotic tissue, 22 of which were confirmed by quantitative real-time PCR. Proteases demonstrated site-specific staining patterns in intestinal fibrotic tissue from mice and in tissue from human inflammatory bowel disease patients. Finally, we show in vitro that Salmonella infection directly induces protease expression in macrophages and epithelial cells but not in fibroblasts. CONCLUSIONS: In summary, we show that chronic Salmonella infection regulates proteases and protease inhibitors during tissue fibrosis in vivo and in vitro, and therefore this model is well suited to investigating the role of proteases in intestinal fibrosis.

Analysis of intestinal microbiota in hybrid house mice reveals evolutionary divergence in a vertebrate hologenome.

Recent evidence suggests that natural selection operating on hosts to maintain their microbiome contributes to the emergence of new species, that is, the 'hologenomic basis of speciation'. Here we analyse the gut microbiota of two house mice subspecies, Mus musculus musculus and M. m. domesticus, across their Central European hybrid zone, in addition to hybrids generated in the lab. Hybrid mice display widespread transgressive phenotypes (that is, exceed or fall short of parental values) in a variety of measures of bacterial community structure, which reveals the importance of stabilizing selection operating on the intestinal microbiome within species. Further genetic and immunological analyses reveal genetic incompatibilities, aberrant immune gene expression and increased intestinal pathology associated with altered community structure among hybrids. These results provide unique insight into the consequences of evolutionary divergence in a vertebrate 'hologenome', which may be an unrecognized contributing factor to reproductive isolation in this taxonomic group.

Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium ΔmsbB triggers exacerbated inflammation in Nod2 deficient mice.

The intracellular pathogen Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium causes intestinal inflammation characterized by edema, neutrophil influx and increased pro-inflammatory cytokine expression. A major bacterial factor inducing pro-inflammatory host responses is lipopolysaccharide (LPS). S. Typhimurium ΔmsbB possesses a modified lipid A, has reduced virulence in mice, and is being considered as a potential anti-cancer vaccine strain. The lack of a late myristoyl transferase, encoded by MsbB leads to attenuated TLR4 stimulation. However, whether other host receptor pathways are also altered remains unclear. Nod1 and Nod2 are cytosolic pattern recognition receptors recognizing bacterial peptidoglycan. They play important roles in the host's immune response to enteric pathogens and in immune homeostasis. Here, we investigated how deletion of msbB affects Salmonella's interaction with Nod1 and Nod2. S. Typhimurium Δ msbB-induced inflammation was significantly exacerbated in Nod2-/- mice compared to C57Bl/6 mice. In addition, S. Typhimurium ΔmsbB maintained robust intestinal colonization in Nod2-/- mice from day 2 to day 7 p.i., whereas colonization levels significantly decreased in C57Bl/6 mice during this time. Similarly, infection of Nod1-/- and Nod1/Nod2 double-knockout mice revealed that both Nod1 and Nod2 play a protective role in S. Typhimurium ΔmsbB-induced colitis. To elucidate why S. Typhimurium ΔmsbB, but not wild-type S. Typhimurium, induced an exacerbated inflammatory response in Nod2-/- mice, we used HEK293 cells which were transiently transfected with pathogen recognition receptors. Stimulation of TLR2-transfected cells with S. Typhimurium ΔmsbB resulted in increased IL-8 production compared to wild-type S. Typhimurium. Our results indicate that S. Typhimurium ΔmsbB triggers exacerbated colitis in the absence of Nod1 and/or Nod2, which is likely due to increased TLR2 stimulation. How bacteria with "genetically detoxified" LPS stimulate various innate responses has important implications for the development of safe and effective bacterial vaccines and adjuvants.