The thalamic reticular nucleus in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder: role of parvalbumin-expressing neuron networks and oxidative stress.

Growing evidence points to a disruption of cortico-thalamo-cortical circuits in schizophrenia (SZ) and bipolar disorder (BD). Clues for a specific involvement of the thalamic reticular nucleus (TRN) come from its unique neuronal characteristics and neural connectivity, allowing it to shape the thalamo-cortical information flow. A direct involvement of the TRN in SZ and BD has not been tested thus far. We used a combination of human postmortem and rodent studies to test the hypothesis that neurons expressing parvalbumin (PV neurons), a main TRN neuronal population, and associated Wisteria floribunda agglutinin-labeled perineuronal nets (WFA/PNNs) are altered in SZ and BD, and that these changes may occur early in the course of the disease as a consequence of oxidative stress. In both disease groups, marked decreases of PV neurons (immunoreactive for PV) and WFA/PNNs were observed in the TRN, with no effects of duration of illness or age at onset. Similarly, in transgenic mice with redox dysregulation, numbers of PV neurons and WFA/PNN+PV neurons were decreased in transgenic compared with wild-type mice; these changes were present at postnatal day (P) 20 for PV neurons and P40 for WFA/PNN+PV neurons, accompanied by alterations of their firing properties. These results show profound abnormalities of PV neurons in the TRN of subjects with SZ and BD, and offer support for the hypothesis that oxidative stress may play a key role in impacting TRN PV neurons at early stages of these disorders. We put forth that these TRN abnormalities may contribute to disruptions of sleep spindles, focused attention and emotion processing in these disorders.

Oxidative stress-driven parvalbumin interneuron impairment as a common mechanism in models of schizophrenia.

Parvalbumin inhibitory interneurons (PVIs) are crucial for maintaining proper excitatory/inhibitory balance and high-frequency neuronal synchronization. Their activity supports critical developmental trajectories, sensory and cognitive processing, and social behavior. Despite heterogeneity in the etiology across schizophrenia and autism spectrum disorder, PVI circuits are altered in these psychiatric disorders. Identifying mechanism(s) underlying PVI deficits is essential to establish treatments targeting in particular cognition. On the basis of published and new data, we propose oxidative stress as a common pathological mechanism leading to PVI impairment in schizophrenia and some forms of autism. A series of animal models carrying genetic and/or environmental risks relevant to diverse etiological aspects of these disorders show PVI deficits to be all accompanied by oxidative stress in the anterior cingulate cortex. Specifically, oxidative stress is negatively correlated with the integrity of PVIs and the extracellular perineuronal net enwrapping these interneurons. Oxidative stress may result from dysregulation of systems typically affected in schizophrenia, including glutamatergic, dopaminergic, immune and antioxidant signaling. As convergent end point, redox dysregulation has successfully been targeted to protect PVIs with antioxidants/redox regulators across several animal models. This opens up new perspectives for the use of antioxidant treatments to be applied to at-risk individuals, in close temporal proximity to environmental impacts known to induce oxidative stress.

Glutathione deficit impairs myelin maturation: relevance for white matter integrity in schizophrenia patients.

Schizophrenia pathophysiology implies both abnormal redox control and dysconnectivity of the prefrontal cortex, partly related to oligodendrocyte and myelin impairments. As oligodendrocytes are highly vulnerable to altered redox state, we investigated the interplay between glutathione and myelin. In control subjects, multimodal brain imaging revealed a positive association between medial prefrontal glutathione levels and both white matter integrity and resting-state functional connectivity along the cingulum bundle. In early psychosis patients, only white matter integrity was correlated with glutathione levels. On the other side, in the prefrontal cortex of peripubertal mice with genetically impaired glutathione synthesis, mature oligodendrocyte numbers, as well as myelin markers, were decreased. At the molecular levels, under glutathione-deficit conditions induced by short hairpin RNA targeting the key glutathione synthesis enzyme, oligodendrocyte progenitors showed a decreased proliferation mediated by an upregulation of Fyn kinase activity, reversed by either the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine or Fyn kinase inhibitors. In addition, oligodendrocyte maturation was impaired. Interestingly, the regulation of Fyn mRNA and protein expression was also impaired in fibroblasts of patients deficient in glutathione synthesis. Thus, glutathione and redox regulation have a critical role in myelination processes and white matter maturation in the prefrontal cortex of rodent and human, a mechanism potentially disrupted in schizophrenia.

Synaptic plasticity impairment and hypofunction of NMDA receptors induced by glutathione deficit: relevance to schizophrenia.

Increasing evidence suggests that the metabolism of glutathione, an endogenous redox regulator, is abnormal in schizophrenia. Patients show a deficit in glutathione levels in the cerebrospinal fluid and prefrontal cortex and a reduction in gene expression of the glutathione synthesizing enzymes. We investigated whether such glutathione deficit altered synaptic transmission and plasticity in slices of rat hippocampus, with particular emphasis on NMDA receptor function. An approximately 40% decrease in brain glutathione levels was induced by s.c. administration of L-buthionine-(S,R)-sulfoximine, an inhibitor of glutathione synthesis. Such glutathione deficit did not affect the basal synaptic transmission, but produced several NMDA receptor-dependent and -independent effects. Glutathione deficit caused an increase in excitability of CA1 pyramidal cells. The paired-pulse facilitation was diminished in glutathione-depleted slices, in a manner that was independent of NMDA receptor activity. This suggests that lowering glutathione levels altered presynaptic mechanisms involved in neurotransmitter release. NMDA receptor-dependent long-term potentiation induced by high-frequency stimulation was impaired in glutathione-depleted slices. Pharmacologically isolated NMDA receptor-mediated field excitatory postsynaptic potentials were significantly smaller in L-buthionine-(S,R)-sulfoximine-treated than in control slices. Hypofunction of NMDA receptors under glutathione deficit was explained at least in part by an excessive oxidation of the extracellular redox-sensitive sites of the NMDA receptors. These results indicate that a glutathione deficit, like that observed in schizophrenics, alters short- and long-term synaptic plasticity and affects NMDA receptor function. Thus, glutathione deficit could be one causal factor for the hypofunction of NMDA receptors in schizophrenia.

Redox dysregulation, neuroinflammation, and NMDA receptor hypofunction: A "central hub" in schizophrenia pathophysiology?

Accumulating evidence points to altered GABAergic parvalbumin-expressing interneurons and impaired myelin/axonal integrity in schizophrenia. Both findings could be due to abnormal neurodevelopmental trajectories, affecting local neuronal networks and long-range synchrony and leading to cognitive deficits. In this review, we present data from animal models demonstrating that redox dysregulation, neuroinflammation and/or NMDAR hypofunction (as observed in patients) impairs the normal development of both parvalbumin interneurons and oligodendrocytes. These observations suggest that a dysregulation of the redox, neuroimmune, and glutamatergic systems due to genetic and early-life environmental risk factors could contribute to the anomalies of parvalbumin interneurons and white matter in schizophrenia, ultimately impacting cognition, social competence, and affective behavior via abnormal function of micro- and macrocircuits. Moreover, we propose that the redox, neuroimmune, and glutamatergic systems form a "central hub" where an imbalance within any of these "hub" systems leads to similar anomalies of parvalbumin interneurons and oligodendrocytes due to the tight and reciprocal interactions that exist among these systems. A combination of vulnerabilities for a dysregulation within more than one of these systems may be particularly deleterious. For these reasons, molecules, such as N-acetylcysteine, that possess antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties and can also regulate glutamatergic transmission are promising tools for prevention in ultra-high risk patients or for early intervention therapy during the first stages of the disease.

A spatiotemporal wave of turnover and functional maturation of olfactory receptor neurons in the spiny lobster Panulirus argus.

Olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs) of crustaceans are housed in aesthetasc sensilla that are located on the lateral flagellum of the antennule. We used young adult spiny lobsters to examine turnover of aesthetascs and functional maturation of their ORNs after molting. The proliferation zone for new aesthetascs is located in the proximal part of the aesthetasc-bearing region and progressively moves along a distoproximal axis. Older aesthetascs are lost in the distal part of the aesthetasc-bearing region. As a result, an aesthetasc may be shed three to six molts after it differentiates. Taurine-like immunoreactivity is elevated in ORNs of aesthetascs that have yet to emerge on the cuticular surface and thereafter decreases gradually and asynchronously. ORNs from the distalmost-developing aesthetascs lose taurine-like immunoreactivity immediately before sensillar emergence, whereas ORNs from the most proximal and lateral new aesthetascs retain taurine-like immunoreactivity throughout the intermolt stage after sensillar emergence. Furthermore, taurine-like immunoreactivity is inversely correlated with odor responsiveness. These results suggest that taurine-like immunoreactivity reveals immature ORNs and that their functional maturation is not synchronized with molting and may not be completed until many weeks after sensillar emergence. Our data suggest successive spatiotemporal waves of birth, differentiation and functional maturation, and death of ORNs.

Functional units of a compound nose: aesthetasc sensilla house similar populations of olfactory receptor neurons on the crustacean antennule.

The lateral flagellum of the antennule of the spiny lobster Panulirus argus houses more than 1,000 morphologically similar olfactory sensilla, called aesthetascs. By using a high-resolution activity labeling technique that depends on entry of agmatine into olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs) through cation channels during odor stimulation, we examined the distribution of different functional types of ORNs within and across mature aesthetascs. A significant number of ORNs in mature aesthetascs are labeled with agmatine during stimulation by single odorants, including adenosine-5'-monophosphate, ammonium chloride, cysteine, glycine, proline, and taurine. The percentage of ORNs per aesthetasc that was agmatine labeled during odor stimulation averaged 0.5-1.6% for single compounds and 4.6% for a 33-component mimic of oyster tissue. For most antennules and antennular regions studied, the percentage of agmatine-labeled ORNs by stimulation with single or complex odorants was statistically homogeneous across most or all aesthetascs. The extent of heterogeneity among mature aesthetascs was correlated with their age: extensive heterogeneity was observed only in the distal part of the flagellum containing the oldest aesthetascs and their ORNs. Thus, it appears that over most of the length of the aesthetasc-bearing region of the lateral flagellum, different and distinct functional types of aesthetascs do not exist. Rather, aesthetascs appear to be repetitive morphological and functional units in olfactory coding. However, because odor sensitivity of ORNs can change with the age of an aesthetasc, some development-related functional heterogeneity exists among aesthetascs.

High-resolution functional labeling of vertebrate and invertebrate olfactory receptor neurons using agmatine, a channel-permeant cation.

Methods are described for odor-stimulated labeling of olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs) of the freshwater zebrafish Danio rerio and the marine spiny lobster Panulirus argus. Permeation of a cationic molecule, 1-amino-4-guanidobutane ( = agmatine, AGB), through ion channels following odor stimulation, and its detection by an anti-AGB antibody, allow labeling of odor-stimulated ORNs. Parameters adjusted to optimize activity-dependent labeling included labeling medium ionic composition, stimulation times, and AGB concentration. For lobsters, 7% of ORNs were labeled by a complex odor, oyster mixture, under optimal conditions, which was stimulation for 5 s per min for 60 min with 20 mM AGB in artificial seawater with reduced sodium and calcium concentrations. AGB was a weak odorant for lobsters; it elicited only a small electrophysiological response from ORNs and labeled < 1% of the ORNs during stimulation with AGB in the absence of odors. For the zebrafish, stimulation for 10 s per min for 10 min with 5 mM AGB plus odorant (L-glutamine) in fish Ringer's solution was the optimal labeling condition, resulting in labeling of 17% of the olfactory epithelial area. Approximately 6% of the olfactory epithelium was labeled during stimulation with a control stimulus, AGB alone. This labeling by AGB alone suggests it is an olfactory stimulus for zebrafish; a conclusion supported by electrophysiological recordings. We used electrophysiological assays and channel blockers to examine, for each species, potential ion channels for entry of AGB into ORNs. These results show that AGB can be used as an activity-dependent label for chemoreceptor neurons of diverse phyla living in a range of environmental conditions.

Why do animals have so many receptors? The role of multiple chemosensors in animal perception.

Many animals have an abundance and diverse assortment of peripheral sensors, both across and within sensory modalities. Multiple sensors offer many functional advantages to an animal's ability to perceive and respond to environmental signals. Advantages include extending the ability to detect and determine the spatial distribution of stimuli, improving the range and accuracy of discrimination among stimuli of different types and intensities, increasing behavioral sensitivity to stimuli, ensuring continued sensory capabilities when the probability of damage or other loss of function to some sensors is high, maintaining sensory function over the entire sensory surface during development and growth, and increasing the richness of behavioral output to sensory stimulation. In this paper, we use the crustacean chemosensory system as the primary example to discuss these functions of multiple sensors. These principles may be applicable to the function of autonomous robots and should be considered in their design.

Perception of breath components by the tropical bont tick, Amblyomma variegatum Fabricius (Ixodidae). I. CO2-excited and CO2-inhibited receptors.

Wall-pore olfactory sensilla located in the capsule of Haller's organ on the tarsus of Amblyomma variegatum ticks bear cells responding to vertebrate breath: one of these sensilla contains a CO2-excited receptor and a second sensillum has a CO2-inhibited receptor. Each of these antagonistic CO2-receptors, which display typical phasic-tonic responses, monitors a different CO2-concentration range. The CO2-inhibited receptor is very sensitive to small concentration changes between 0 and ca. 0.2%, but variations of 0.01% around ambient (ca. 0.04%) induce the strongest frequency modulation of this receptor. An increase of just 0.001-0.002% (10-20 ppm) above a zero CO2-level already inhibits this receptor. By contrast, the CO2-excited receptor is not so sensitive to small CO2 shifts around ambient, but best monitors changes in CO2 concentrations above 0.1%. This receptor is characterized by a steep dose-response curve and a fast inactivation even at high CO2-concentrations (greater than 2%). In a wind-tunnel, Amblyomma variegatum is activated from the resting state and attracted by CO2 concentrations of 0.04 to ca. 1%, which corresponds to the sensitivity range of its CO2-receptors. The task of perceiving the whole concentration range to which this tick is attracted would thus appear to be divided between two receptors, one sensitive to small changes around ambient and the other sensitive to the higher concentrations normally encountered when approaching a vertebrate host.

Perception of breath components by the tropical bont tick, Amblyomma variegatum Fabricius (Ixodidae). II. Sulfide-receptors.

Wall-pore sensilla in the capsule of Haller's organ on foreleg tarsi of the tick, Amblyomma variegatum, show multicellular responses upon stimulation with human and bovine breath. Filtering breath through charcoal removes the stimulant for some of these receptors. Analysis by gas chromatography coupled with olfactory sensillum electrophysiological recordings indicates that an ethanol extract of the breath components trapped on charcoal contains a major stimulant eluting at the same retention time as H2S. Two types of H2S-sensitive receptors have been identified. They are housed in separate sensilla, and are called sulfide-receptor 1 and 2. Although, both receptor types are characterized by a high sensitivity to H2S with an estimated threshold of ca. 0.1 ppb and a response range covering 5-6 log orders of magnitude, their overall response to sulfides and mercaptans is nevertheless dissimilar. The type 1 receptor fires slightly more upon stimulations with H2S than type 2, whereas ethylmercaptan induces a stronger response from type 2, and dimethyl sulfide activates only receptor 2. In a bioassay, H2S tested at concentrations of ca. 0.02 ppm and 1 ppm equally arouses 60% of resting ticks. Two-thirds of these ticks quest the air with their first pair of legs, and the remainder start active search. By contrast, H2S at ca. 1 ppm in a mixture with CO2 severely diminishes the locomotor stimulating effect of CO2.

Coding of blend ratios of binary mixtures by olfactory neurons in the Florida spiny lobster, Panulirus argus.

The aim of this study was to investigate quality coding of blend ratios of binary mixtures by olfactory receptor cells in the spiny lobster. Three odorants (adenosine-5'-monophosphate, L-glutamate, and taurine) at 0.1-100 mumol.1(-1) and seven blend ratios of each of their binary mixtures at a total concentration of 100 mumol.1(-1) were used. The olfactory cells recorded (n = 48) evoked across-neuron patterns for single odorants that were well separated from each other. Across-neuron patterns varied with stimulus concentration but less than with stimulus type. Blend ratios of the three mixtures evoked across-neuron patterns that were orderly placed within a continuum between those elicited by the components. Mixture interactions, defined as a lack of independent effects by a mixture's components, occurred in 25, 24 and 37% of responses to blend ratios of glutamate/taurine, adenosine-5'-monophosphate/taurine, and glutamate/adenosine-5'-monophosphate, respectively. These mixture interactions did not have a large enough effect on the across-neuron patterns for the mixtures such they would be novel relative to those of the single components. These results suggest that despite mixture interactions the quality of individual compounds is not lost when mixed. This corroborates behavioral studies showing that spiny lobsters have the ability to elementally process odor mixtures.

Identification of vertebrate volatiles stimulating olfactory receptors on tarsus I of the tick Amblyomma variegatum Fabricius (Ixodidae). I. Receptors within the Haller's organ capsule.

Gas chromatography-coupled electrophysiological recordings (GC-EL) from olfactory sensilla within the capsule of Haller's organ of the tick Amblyomma variegatum indicate the presence of a number of stimulants in rabbit and bovine odours, and in steer skin wash. Some of these stimulants were fully identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis and by matching electrophysiological activity of synthetic analogues as: 1) hexanal, 2-heptenal, nonanal, furfural, benzaldehyde, and 2-hydroxybenzaldehyde (in all extracts); 2) heptanal, 2-, 3-, and 4-methylbenzaldehyde, and gamma-valerolactone (only in bovine and rabbit odour). Careful examination of the electrophysiological responses permit characterization of 6 receptor types: 1) a benzaldehyde receptor, 2) a 2-hydroxybenzaldehyde receptor, 3) three types of receptors responding differently to aliphatic aldehydes, and 4) a lactone receptor.

Biosynthesis, production site, and emission rates of aggregation-attachment pheromone in males of twoAmblyomma ticks.

The aggregation-attachment pheromone componentso-nitrophenol (ONP) and methyl salicylate (MS) in maleAmblyomma variegatum ticks appeared after three days of feeding on the host and reached high values after about six days. Variable quantities of 1.3-7.3 µg ONP and about 0.6 µg MS were present within ticks. ONP and MS were released at the high rates of 300-1800 ng/hr and 20-600 ng/hr per male tick, respectively. After a temporary decrease, males continued to emit at high rates after nearby attachment of females. InA. hebraeum, ONP showed a similar pattern, but with a delay of about a day. A male, which had fed during 14 days, contained about 2 µg and released 225-280 ng/hr. Emission in forcibly detached males of both species dropped rapidly to low levels of less than 10 ng/hr per tick. Host skin and tick feces in the vicinity of feeding males were pheromoneimpregnated. The very high emission rates are consistent with the observations that the pheromone is an important component of the host-location mechanism of conspecifics. ONP and MS are produced in the dermal glands type 2 associated with the ventrolateral cuticle.

Selective ablation of antennular sensilla on the Caribbean spiny lobster Panulirus argus suggests that dual antennular chemosensory pathways mediate odorant activation of searching and localization of food.

In spiny lobsters and other decapod crustaceans, odorant-mediated searching behavior patterns are driven primarily by chemosensory neurons in the antennules. Two groups of antennular chemosensory neurons can be distinguished on the basis of the sensilla that they innervate and their central projections: those that innervate the aesthetasc sensilla on the lateral flagella and project into the glomerularly organized olfactory lobes, and those that innervate other (i.e. non-aesthetasc) sensilla on both lateral and medial flagella and project into the stratified and non-glomerularly organized lateral antennular neuropils. By ablating different groups of antennular sensory neurons or sensilla, we examined the role of aesthetasc and non-aesthetasc chemosensory neurons in regulating local searching behavior of Caribbean spiny lobsters, Panulirus argus, for food (squid) in a low-flow environment. The results show that odorant-mediated activation of searching and localization of food under these conditions requires only a subset of functional antennular chemosensory neurons, since neither aesthetasc chemosensory neurons nor non-aesthetasc chemosensory neurons are by themselves necessary for these types of behavior. However, ablation of aesthetasc chemosensory neurons together with subsets of non-aesthetasc chemosensory neurons from either the medial or lateral flagella impairs the ability of lobsters to locate the food. This reveals a large degree of functional redundancy but also some complementary functions between aesthetasc and non-aesthetasc chemosensory neurons, and hence between these dual antennular chemosensory pathways, in odorant-mediated searching behavior of lobsters under these conditions.