Enhanced dissolution and stability of artemisinin by nano-confinement in ordered mesoporous SBA-15 particles.

Dissolution of poorly water-soluble drug, Artemisinin (ART), was enhanced by encapsulating the drug particles inside pore channels of ordered mesoporous silica, SBA-15, via co-spray drying. The drug release profiles of ART were investigated by using flow-through cell (USP IV) and in vitro dissolution tester (USP II). The co-spray-dried ART/SBA-15 samples demonstrated significantly improved dissolution rates and supersaturation compared to the untreated ART. The low cytotoxicity effect of ART and SBA-15 on Caco-2 cells after 24 h incubation demonstrated the biocompatibility of ART/SBA-15. Finally, the storage stability of the samples was investigated for 6 months under five different storage conditions. Overall, the solid dispersions exhibited excellent physical stability; however, their chemical stability was affected by humidity regardless of storage temperatures. The formulation of solid dispersions of ART/SBA-15 is potentially safe and an effective approach to enhance the solubility of poorly water-soluble ART.

Sucrose ester stabilized solid lipid nanoparticles and nanostructured lipid carriers. I. Effect of formulation variables on the physicochemical properties, drug release and stability of clotrimazole-loaded nanoparticles.

The objective of this study was to develop and evaluate solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) utilizing sucrose ester as a stabilizer/emulsifier for the controlled release of drug/active. Both SLNs and NLCs were prepared using different sugar esters to screen out the most suitable stabilizer. Clotrimazole was used as a model active/drug. The effect of different formulation variables on the particle size, polydispersity index and drug encapsulation efficiency of SLNs and NLCs was evaluated and compared. SLNs and NLCs were physicochemically characterized and compared using Cryo-SEM, DSC and XRD. Furthermore, a drug release study of SLNs and NLCs was conducted. Finally, physicochemical stability (size, PI, ZP, EE) of the SLNs and NLCs was checked at 25 ± 2 °C and at 2-8 °C. Among the sucrose esters, D-1216 was found to be most suitable for both SLNs and NLCs. Formulation variables exhibited a significant impact on size, PI and EE of the nanoparticles. SLNs with ∼120 nm size, ∼0.23 PI, ∼I26I mV ZP, ∼87% EE and NLCs with ∼160 nm size, 0.15 PI, ∼I26I mV ZP, ∼88% EE were produced. Cryo-SEM revealed spherical particles with a smooth surface but did not exhibit any difference in surface morphology between SLNs and NLCs. DSC and XRD results demonstrated the disappearance of clotrimazole peak(s) in drug-loaded SLNs and NLCs. Faster drug release was observed from SLNs than NLCs. NLCs were found to be more stable than SLNs in terms of size, PI, EE and drug release. The results indicated that both SLNs and NLCs stabilized with sucrose ester D-1216 can be used as controlled release carriers although NLCs have an edge over SLNs.

Sucrose ester stabilized solid lipid nanoparticles and nanostructured lipid carriers. II. Evaluation of the imidazole antifungal drug-loaded nanoparticle dispersions and their gel formulations.

This study focused on: (i) feasibility of the previously developed sucrose ester stabilized SLNs and NLCs to encapsulate different imidazole antifungal drugs and (ii) preparation and evaluation of topical gel formulations of those SLNs and NLCs. Three imidazole antifungal drugs; clotrimazole, ketoconazole and climbazole were selected for this study. The results suggested that size, size distribution and drug encapsulation efficiency depend on the drug molecule and type of nanoparticles (SLN/NLC). The drug release experiment always showed faster drug release from NLCs than SLNs when the same drug molecule was loaded in both nanoparticles. However, drug release rate from both SLNs and NLCs followed the order of climbazole > ketoconazole > clotrimazole. NLCs demonstrated better physicochemical stability than SLNs in the case of all drugs. The drug release rate from ketoconazole- and clotrimazole-loaded SLNs became faster after three months than a fresh formulation. There was no significant change in drug release rate from climbazole-loaded SLNs and all drug-loaded NLCs. Gel formulations of SLNs and NLCs were prepared using polycarbophil polymer. Continuous flow measurements demonstrated non-Newtonian flow with shear-thinning behavior and thixotropy. Oscillation measurements depicted viscoelasticity of the gel formulations. Similar to nanoparticle dispersion, drug release rate from SLN- and NLC-gel was in the order of climbazole > ketoconazole > clotrimazole. However, significantly slower drug release was noticed from all gel formulations than their nanoparticle counterparts. Unlike nanoparticle dispersions, no significant difference in drug release from gel formulations containing SLNs and NLCs was observed for each drug. This study concludes that gel formulation of imidazole drug-loaded SLNs and NLCs can be used for sustained/prolonged topical delivery of the drugs.

Solid self-emulsifying drug delivery system (S-SEDDS) for improved dissolution rate of fenofibrate.

PURPOSE: The aim of this work was to develop and characterise S-SEDDS containing fenofibrate (FF) for dissolution enhancement. METHODS: The self-emulsifying pre-concentrate was prepared by using different proportion of Labrafac WL1349 as oily phase, Cremophor EL as surfactants and Gelucire 44/14 as co-surfactant. The prepared pre-concentrate was solidified with PEG 6000. For comparison, formulations containing TPGS as surfactant and solidifier were prepared and studied. RESULTS: The cremophor/PEG and TPGS based S-SEDDS formulations containing 10 and 15% w/w FF when dispersed in water, formed nanoemulsion with a size range of 150-200 nm. FF was present in the crystalline state in the formulations. The formulations containing 10% w/w FF showed 90-100% dissolution in 60 min whereas the untreated FF showed only 2-4% dissolution. CONCLUSION: A novel S-SEDDS was developed for FF using cremophor/PEG and TPGS. The dissolution of FF was enhanced by approximately 20-fold in SGF pH 1.2.

Branched polyethylene glycol for protein precipitation.

The use of linear PEGs for protein precipitation raises the issues of high viscosity and limited selectivity. This paper explores PEG branching as a way to alleviate the first problem, by using 3-arm star as the model branched structure. 3-arm star PEGs of 4,000 to 9,000 Da were synthesized and characterized. The effects of PEG branching were then elucidated by comparing the branched PEG precipitants to linear versions of equivalent molecular weights, in terms of IgG recovery from CHO cell culture supernatant, precipitation selectivity, solubility of different purified proteins, and precipitation kinetics. Two distinct effects were observed: PEG branching reduced dynamic viscosity; secondly, the branched PEGs precipitated less proteins and did so more slowly. Precipitation selectivity was largely unaffected. When the branched PEGs were used at concentrations higher than their linear counterparts to give similar precipitation yields, the dynamic viscosity of the branched PEGs were noticeably lower. Interestingly, the precipitation outcome was found to be a strong function of PEG hydrodynamic radius, regardless of PEG shape and molecular weight. These observations are consistent with steric mechanisms such as volume exclusion and attractive depletion.

Molecular simulation study of the effect of various additives on salbutamol sulfate crystal habit.

The effects of polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose (HPMC), and lecithin additives on salbutamol sulfate (SS) crystal growth are studied using molecular dynamics (MD) simulation, to provide an insight into the interaction between the additives and SS crystal faces at the atomistic level. The interaction energy between additives and crystal faces is presented. The intermolecular contacts between the additives and the crystal faces are analyzed by calculating the average number of contacts between O atoms of the additives and the H atoms of the first layer of the SS crystal. The mobility of each additive on SS crystal faces is also reported by determining the mean square displacement. Our results suggest that PVP is the most effective among the three additives for the inhibition of SS crystal growth. The methodology used in this study could be a powerful tool for selection of habit-modifying additives in other crystallization systems.

Investigating the effect of moisture protection on solid-state stability and dissolution of fenofibrate and ketoconazole solid dispersions using PXRD, HSDSC and Raman microscopy.

Enhanced dissolution of poorly soluble active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) in amorphous solid dispersions often diminishes during storage due to moisture-induced re-crystallization. This study aims to investigate the influence of moisture protection on solid-state stability and dissolution profiles of melt-extruded fenofibrate (FF) and ketoconazole (KC) solid dispersions. Samples were kept in open, closed and Activ-vials(®) to control the moisture uptake under accelerated conditions. During 13-week storage, changes in API crystallinity were quantified using powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD) (Rietveld analysis) and high sensitivity differential scanning calorimetry (HSDSC) and compared with any change in dissolution profiles. Trace crystallinity was observed by Raman microscopy, which otherwise was undetected by PXRD and HSDSC. Results showed that while moisture protection was ineffective in preventing the re-crystallization of amorphous FF, KC remained X-ray amorphous despite 5% moisture uptake. Regardless of the degree of crystallinity increase in FF, the enhanced dissolution properties were similarly diminished. Moisture uptake above 10% in KC samples also led to re-crystallization and significant decrease in dissolution rates. In conclusion, eliminating moisture sorption may not be sufficient in ensuring the stability of solid dispersions. Analytical quantification of API crystallinity is crucial in detecting subtle increase in crystallinity that can diminish the enhanced dissolution properties of solid dispersions.

Nitro-furan-toin methanol monosolvate.

The anti-biotic nitro-furan-toin {systematic name: (E)-1-[(5-nitro-2-fur-yl)methyl-idene-amino]-imidazolidine-2,4-dione} crys-tallizes as a methanol monosolvate, C(8)H(6)N(4)O(5)·CH(4)O. The nitro-furan-toin mol-ecule adopts a nearly planar conformation (r.m.s. deviation = 0.0344 Å). Hydrogen bonds involve the co-operative N-H⋯O-H⋯O heterosynthons between the cyclic imide of nitro-furan-toin and methanol O-H groups. There are also C-H⋯O hydrogen bonds involving the nitro-furan-toin mol-ecules which support the key hydrogen-bonding synthon. The overall crystal packing is further assisted by weak C-H⋯O inter-actions, giving a herringbone pattern.

Pyrimidin-2-amine-1-phenyl-cyclo-pentane-1-carb-oxy-lic acid (1/1).

In the crystal structure of the title co-crystal, C(4)H(5)N(3)·C(12)H(14)O(2), the components are linked by N-H⋯O and O-H⋯N hydrogen bonds. Self-assembly of these dimeric units results in a four-component supra-molecular unit featuring a homosynthon between two mol-ecules of the pyrimidin-2-amine involving two N-H⋯O hydrogen bonds, and two heterosynthons between each one mol-ecule of pyrimidin-2-amine and 1-phenyl-cyclo-pentane-1-carb-oxy-lic acid involving N-H⋯O and O-H⋯N hydrogen bonds.

N,N-Dimethylpyridin-4-aminium 1-phenyl-cyclo-pentane-1-carboxyl-ate monohydrate.

The cation of the title salt, C(7)H(11)N(2) (+)·C(12)H(13)O(2) (-)·H(2)O, is planar (r.m.s. deviation = 0.0184 Å). In the crystal, the cation, anion and water mol-ecule are linked by O-H⋯O and N-H⋯O hydrogen bonds, forming a chain running along the a axis.

Understanding the Salt-Dependent Outcome of Glycine Polymorphic Nucleation.

The salt-dependent polymorphs of glycine crystals formed from bulk solutions have been a longstanding riddle. In this study, in order to shed fresh light, we studied the effects of seven common salts on primary nucleation of the metastable α-glycine and the stable γ-glycine. Our nucleation experiments and in-depth data analyses enabled us to reveal that (NH4)2SO4, NaCl and KNO3, in general, promote γ-glycine primary nucleation very significantly while simultaneously inhibiting α-glycine primary nucleation, thereby explaining why these three salts induce γ-glycine readily. In comparison, Ca(NO3)2 and MgSO4 also promote γ-glycine and inhibit α-glycine primary nucleation but not sufficiently to induce γ-glycine. More interestingly, Na2SO4 and K2SO4 promote not only γ-glycine but also α-glycine primary nucleation, which is unexpected and presents a rare case where a single additive promotes the nucleation of both polymorphs. As a result, the promoting effects of Na2SO4 and K2SO4 on γ-glycine do not enable γ-glycine nucleation to be more competitive than α-glycine nucleation, with γ-glycine failing to appear. These observations help us to better understand salt-governed glycine polymorphic selectivity.

Ethenzamide-gentisic acid-acetic acid (2/1/1).

In the title co-crystal solvate, 2-ethoxy-benzamide-2,5-dihydroxy-benzoic acid-ethanoic acid (2/1/1), 2C(9)H(11)NO(2)·C(7)H(6)O(4)·C(2)H(4)O(2), two nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, ethenzamide (systematic name: 2-ethoxy-benzamide) and gentisic acid (systematic name: 2,5-dihydroxy-benzoic acid), together with acetic acid (systematic name: ethanoic acid) form a four-component mol-ecular assembly held together by N-H⋯O and O-H⋯O hydrogen bonds. This assembly features two symmetry-independent mol-ecules of ethenzamide, forming supra-molecular acid-amide heterosynthons with gentisic acid and acetic acid. These heterosynthons involve quite strong O-H⋯O [O⋯O = 2.5446 (15) and 2.5327 (15) Å] and less strong N-H⋯O [N⋯O = 2.9550 (17) and 2.9542 (17) Å] hydrogen bonds. The overall crystal packing features several C-H⋯O and π-π stacking inter-actions [centroid-centroid distance = 3.7792 (11) Å].

2-Amino-pyridinium 1-phenyl-cyclo-propane-1-carboxyl-ate.

In the title salt, C(5)H(7)N(2) (+)·C(10)H(9)O(2) (-), 2-amino-pyridine and 1-phenyl-cyclo-propane-1-carb-oxy-lic acid crystallize together, forming a 2-amino-pyridinium-carboxyl-ate supra-molecular heterosynthon involving two N-H⋯O hydrogen bonds, which in turn dimerizes to form a four-component supra-molecular unit also sustained by N-H⋯O hydrogen bonding. A C-H⋯π inter-action between a pyridine C-H group and the centroid of the phenyl ring of the anion further stabilizes the four-component supra-molecular unit. The overall crystal packing also features C-H⋯O inter-actions.

Theophylline-gentisic acid (1/1).

In the title 1:1 cocrystal, C(7)H(8)N(4)O(2)·C(7)H(6)O(4), the anti-asthmatic drug theophylline (systematic name: 1,3-dimethyl-7H-purine-2,6-dione) and a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug, gentisic acid (systematic name: 2,5-dihydroxy-benzoic acid) crystallize together, forming two-dimensional hydrogen-bonded sheets involving N-H⋯O and O-H⋯N hydrogen bonds. The overall crystal packing features π-π stacking inter-actions [centroid-centroid distance = 3.348 (1) Å]. The cocrystal described herein belongs to the class of pharmaceutical cocrystals involving two active pharmaceutical ingredients which has been relatively unexplored to date.

Preparation, Characterization and Prevention of Auto-oxidation of Amorphous Sirolimus by Encapsulation in Polymeric Films Using Hot Melt Extrusion.

BACKGROUND: Sirolimus (SIR) is a macrocyclic lactone antibiotic and used therapeutically as a potent immunosuppressant for prophylaxis of kidney transplant rejection. The development of an oral dosage form is challenging because of very poor aqueous solubility (2.6µg/ml). The oral bioavailability of SIR is only 15-20 % and is affected by food and other drugs. The main reasons for low bioavailability are intestinal degradation by enzymes especially by cytochrome P4503A4, efflux by P-glycoprotein and hepatic first-pass metabolism. OBJECTIVE: The main objective was to prepare a mouth dissolving film dosage form of amorphous SIR to improve dissolution. METHODS: Crystalline SIR was transformed to its form amorphous by milling for 2 h at room temperature. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and powder x-ray diffraction (PXRD) were used for characterisation. The stability of amorphous SIR was studied at 4°C and 40°C/75% RH. Amorphous SIR was formulated as oral films by melt extrusion with polyvinylpyrrolidone- vinyl acetate (PVP-VA), Soluplus® and hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC) as carriers. The films were characterized for drug content, physical state, dissolution profile and stability at 4°C and 40°C/75% RH. RESULTS: The PRXD and DSC confirmed the conversion of crystalline SIR to amorphous form by milling. The solubility of amorphous SIR was several folds higher than its crystalline form, but amorphous SIR was highly unstable at all tested temperatures (4° and 40°C). The extruded films exhibited higher dissolution and stability compared to milled SIR powder alone, but the process of extrusion had some detrimental effect on the chemical stability of amorphous SIR. CONCLUSION: The film formulations showed a significant improvement in the storage stability of the amorphous form of SIR and the solubility advantage of the amorphous form was evident in the dissolution testing. The oral films can potentially improve the bioavailability of SIR by absorption through the buccal mucosa.

Inhaled mucoactive particles with tailored architecture for enhanced aerodynamicity, stability and efficacy.

In respiratory and genetic disorders such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), chronic bronchitis and cystic fibrosis (CF), the lungs produce excess mucus, resulting in a thickened mass, which clogs up the airways and reduces airflow. Consequently, breathing becomes more difficult. Medications that break down the structure of mucus will be especially useful in managing the early symptoms of these diseases and preventing their progression into the more severe forms. This work therefore seeks to develop an inhaled mucoactive dry powder formulation that is efficacious on multiple fronts. As an innovative step, sodium chloride was used to tailor the surface architecture of ambroxol hydrochloride particles, such that the resulting angular features on the surfaces contributed to the creation of corrugated particles with enhanced aerodynamicity. The optimized spray-dried powder particles were of respirable-size (d50 of 2.85 ±â€¯0.15 µm) and moderately corrugated. When the crystalline powder was dispersed via an Aerolizer® inhaler at 60 L/min, it gave a fine particle fraction (FPF) of ~31%, which was a ten-fold improvement over the unmodified species (i.e. ambroxol hydrochloride alone). Tests on artificial sputum medium (ASM) showed that the optimized formulation was potentially useful in liquefying the mucus, which favorably pointed towards the effectiveness of the formulation. In addition, the formulation was also stable to moisture ingress (up to ~60% RH) and had good flowability. Hence, the advent of angular adjuvant sodium chloride particles in a mucoactive formulation conferred a three-fold benefit to the product: (1) Improved aerodynamicity and flowability, (2) Enhanced moisture stability and (3) Synergistic mucolytic properties.

Screening for cocrystallization tendency: the role of intermolecular interactions.

Pharmaceutical cocrystals have rapidly emerged as a new class of API solids with great promise and advantages. Much work has been focused on exploring the crystal engineering and design strategies that facilitate formation of cocrystals of APIs and ligands/cocrystal formers. However, fewer attempts have been made to understand the equilibrium phase behavior and phase transition kinetics of the cocrystallizing solutions. This limited knowledge on the solution physical chemistry often leads to difficulty in screening for potential molecular pairs of API and ligand that form cocrystals effectively. In this study, the long-time self-diffusivities measured using pulsed gradient spin-echo nuclear magnetic resonance (PGSE NMR) are used to characterize the particle interactions in solutions for pharmaceutical cocrystallizing systems. For the pairs of API and ligand that produce cocrystals, the heteromeric attractions between API and ligand are found to be stronger than the homomeric attractions between API molecules and between ligand molecules, suggesting that an energetically favorable condition is induced for the formation of cocrystals. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of using the pair contribution of the self-diffusivity as a screening tool for cocrystal formation.

Solubilization and preformulation of poorly water soluble and hydrolysis susceptible N-epoxymethyl-1,8-naphthalimide (ENA) compound.

N-Epoxymethyl-1,8-naphthalimide (ENA) is a novel antiproliferative drug candidate with potent anticancer and antifungal activity. It has an aqueous solubility of 0.0116mg/mL and also exhibits hydrolytic instability with a first-order hydrolysis rate of 0.051 h(-1). The present preformulation study aimed to characterize the physicochemical properties of ENA and develop an early injectable solution formulation for preclinical studies. To minimize hydrolysis, ENA is proposed to be formulated as either lyophilized powders or nonaqueous solutions followed by solubilization/reconstitution prior to administration. ENA solubilization was investigated in both aqueous media (by cosolvency, micellization and complexation) and nonaqueous solutions (mixture of Cremophor EL and ethanol). It is found that none of the solubilization techniques in aqueous media could increase ENA solubility to a desired level of several hundreds microg/mL at pharmaceutically acceptable excipient concentrations (< or =10%). In contrast, a combination of 70% Cremophor EL and 30% ethanol (v/v) proved effective in solubilizing ENA at 4 mg/mL, which exhibited good physical and chemical stability on storage at both 4 degrees C and room temperature over 4 months. No precipitation was observed upon 5-20 times dilution by the saline; in addition, less than 5% of ENA was hydrolyzed in 4h for the saline-diluted aqueous solutions. This nonaqueous ENA formulation is thus proposed for further preclinical studies, which can be reconstituted, prior to administration, by the 5-20 times infusion fluids (saline, 5% dextrose, etc.) to the desired drug dosing concentration at the acceptable excipient level. The approach used in this work could serve as a useful reference in formulating nonpolar drugs with hydrolytic instability.

Synthesis of carboxyl-modified rod-like SBA-15 by rapid co-condensation.

Carboxyl-modified SBA-15 rod-like mesoporous materials have been synthesized by a facile rapid co-condensation of tetraethylorthosilicate (TEOS) and 2-cyanoethyltriethoxysilane (CTES), followed by hydrolysis of cyanide groups in sulfuric acid. The concentration of carboxylic groups was varied by changing the silica source ratio of CTES/TEOS from 0.05 to 0.3. X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) showed that the uniform ordered mesoporous structure and rod-like morphology of SBA-15 have been preserved even at the high concentration of carboxylic groups employed. Characterization by Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), solid-state NMR investigation indicated that carboxylic groups have been successfully grafted onto the surface of SBA-15 through siloxane bonds [(O(3))SiCH(2)CH(2)COOH. The negative charges of the modified SBA-15 materials were enhanced by the presence of the carboxylic groups on the surface. The capacity of lysozyme adsorption of the modified SBA-15 materials were found to be significantly improved as compared with pure silica SBA-15. The maximum amount of lysozyme adsorption on carboxyl-modified was increased with the pH of solution increased from 5.5 to 9.0.

Formulation of Fe3O4/acrylate co-polymer nanocomposites as potential drug carriers.

Magnetic nanocomposite particles were synthesized by encapsulating nanosized magnetite with an acrylate-based cationic co-polymer made of MMA, BA, and QMA and modifying with MeOPEGMA using the water replacement method. The composition of the co-polymer formulation was optimized based on zeta-potential measurements and freeze-thaw stability. Electrostatic interaction between negatively charged model drug aspirin and positively charged co-polymer plays the most important role in drug loading and in vitro release studies. Drug release exhibited a biphasic profile with an initial burst release followed by a prolonged slow release, which could be potentially useful for target and controlled drug delivery.