Impact of Enolase in Allergic Disease.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: There is growing evidence that enolase is involved in allergy. This manuscript reviews the impact of enolase in allergic disease and describes several sources of this allergen including molds, plants, animals, and pollens, among others. IgE epitopes are carefully analyzed as they may account for cross-reactivity. RECENT FINDINGS: Enolase has been previously associated to food allergy and contact dermatitis. However, other groups and we have identified recently novel enolases derived from diverse pollens in patients suffering asthma and allergic rhinitis. Exposure to outdoor enolases may cause respiratory disease. Enolase has been identified across various species and its amino acid sequence is highly conserved among different sources of this allergen. The demonstration that enolase is involved in many allergic diseases including respiratory allergies, is of clinic relevance. Thus, the development of novel molecular-based diagnostic and therapeutic strategies may pave the way for improved diagnosis and therapeutics.

Oxidative Stress and Air Pollution: Its Impact on Chronic Respiratory Diseases.

Redox regulation participates in the control of various aspects of metabolism. Reactive oxygen and nitrogen species participate in many reactions under physiological conditions. When these species overcome the antioxidant defense system, a distressed status emerges, increasing biomolecular damage and leading to functional alterations. Air pollution is one of the exogenous sources of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species. Ambient airborne particulate matter (PM) is important because of its complex composition, which includes transition metals and organic compounds. Once in contact with the lungs' epithelium, PM components initiate the synthesis of inflammatory mediators, macrophage activation, modulation of gene expression, and the activation of transcription factors, which are all related to the physiopathology of chronic respiratory diseases, including cancer. Even though the pathophysiological pathways that give rise to the development of distress and biological damage are not fully understood, scientific evidence indicates that redox-dependent signaling pathways are involved. This article presents an overview of the redox interaction of air pollution inside the human body and the courses related to chronic respiratory diseases.

Current Insights on the Impact of Proteomics in Respiratory Allergies.

Respiratory allergies affect humans worldwide, causing extensive morbidity and mortality. They include allergic rhinitis (AR), asthma, pollen food allergy syndrome (PFAS), aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease (AERD), and nasal polyps (NPs). The study of respiratory allergic diseases requires new technologies for early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. Omics technologies provide the tools required to investigate DNA, RNA, proteins, and other molecular determinants. These technologies include genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics. However, proteomics is one of the main approaches to studying allergic disorders' pathophysiology. Proteins are used to indicate normal biological processes, pathogenic processes, or pharmacologic responses to a therapeutic intervention. In this field, the principal goal of proteomics has been to discover new proteins and use them in precision medicine. Multiple technologies have been applied to proteomics, but that most used for identifying, quantifying, and profiling proteins is mass spectrometry (MS). Over the last few years, proteomics has enabled the establishment of several proteins for diagnosing and treating respiratory allergic diseases.

Subcutaneous Allergen-Specific Immunotherapy Is Safe in Pediatric Patients with Allergic Rhinitis.

INTRODUCTION: Subcutaneous allergen-specific immunotherapy (SCIT) is one of the main cornerstones in the treatment of allergic rhinitis in pediatric patients. It has demonstrated symptoms and quality of life improvement, but it is not exempt from adverse reactions (ADVrs). Nevertheless, there are a few reports that have evaluated their safety. Our objective was to evaluate the ADVr to SCIT in pediatric patients. METHODS: We reviewed 786 clinical records with SCIT from 2005 to 2018, comparing the clinical characteristics of patients with ADVrs with SCIT versus a group of a similar number of patients who completed SCIT (control group, CG). The analysis of ADVrs was according to the World Allergy Organization (WAO) 2010 grading system by frequency analysis, survival curve, and log rank. RESULTS: Of 786 patients, 106 (13.4%) presented ADVrs, and the patients with ADVr had sensitivity and immunotherapy with at least 2 allergens versus CG p < 0.001, containing a combination of standardized and nonstandardized allergens (p = 0.003). The ADVrs were in the buildup phase (p < 0.001). The survival curve showed that 50% had some reaction at 12 weeks of SCIT. The most frequent ADVr was grade 1 in 73/106 patients (68.8%) and grade 2 in 33/106 (31.1%). The log-rank analysis between the grades of the WAO grading system showed a statistically significant difference (p = 0.02). CONCLUSIONS: The SCIT is safe in pediatric patients. The ADVrs are infrequent, grade 1 being the most reported; however, at >12 weeks, the risk of ADVrs that involve 2 organs systems increases.

New Insights into the Role of PD-1 and Its Ligands in Allergic Disease.

Programmed cell death 1 (PD-1) and its ligands PD-L1 and PD-L2 are receptors that act in co-stimulatory and coinhibitory immune responses. Signaling the PD-1/PD-L1 or PD-L2 pathway is essential to regulate the inflammatory responses to infections, autoimmunity, and allergies, and it has been extensively studied in cancer. Allergic diseases include asthma, rhinoconjunctivitis, atopic dermatitis, drug allergy, and anaphylaxis. These overactive immune responses involve IgE-dependent activation and increased CD4+ T helper type 2 (Th2) lymphocytes. Recent studies have shown that PD-L1 and PD-L2 act to regulate T-cell activation and function. However, the main role of PD-1 and its ligands is to balance the immune response; however, the inflammatory process of allergic diseases is poorly understood. These immune checkpoint molecules can function as a brake or a kick-start to regulate the adaptive immune response. These findings suggest that PD-1 and its ligands may be a key factor in studying the exaggerated response in hypersensitivity reactions in allergies. This review summarizes the current understanding of the role of PD-1 and PD-L1 and PD-L2 pathway regulation in allergic diseases and how this immunomodulatory pathway is currently being targeted to develop novel therapeutic immunotherapy.

Overview of New Treatments with Immunotherapy for Breast Cancer and a Proposal of a Combination Therapy.

According to data from the U.S. National Cancer Institute, cancer is one of the leading causes of death worldwide with approximately 14 million new cases and 8.2 million cancer-related deaths in 2018. More than 60% of the new annual cases in the world occur in Africa, Asia, Central America, and South America, with 70% of cancer deaths in these regions. Breast cancer is the most common cancer in women, with 266,120 new cases in American women and an estimated 40,920 deaths for 2018. Approximately one in six women diagnosed with breast cancer will die in the coming years. Recently, novel therapeutic strategies have been implemented in the fight against breast cancer, including molecules able to block signaling pathways, an inhibitor of poly [ADP-ribose] polymerase (PARP), growth receptor blocker antibodies, or those that reactivate the immune system by inhibiting the activities of inhibitory receptors like cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA-4) and programmed death protein 1 (PD-1). However, novel targets include reactivating the Th1 immune response, changing tumor microenvironment, and co-activation of other components of the immune response such as natural killer cells and CD8+ T cells among others. In this article, we review advances in the treatment of breast cancer focused essentially on immunomodulatory drugs in targeted cancer therapy. Based on this knowledge, we formulate a proposal for the implementation of combined therapy using an extracorporeal immune response reactivation model and cytokines plus modulating antibodies for co-activation of the Th1- and natural killer cell (NK)-dependent immune response, either in situ or through autologous cell therapy. The implementation of "combination immunotherapy" is new hope in breast cancer treatment. Therefore, we consider the coordinated activation of each cell of the immune response that would probably produce better outcomes. Although more research is required, the results recently achieved by combination therapy suggest that for most, if not all, cancer patients, this tailored therapy may become a realistic approach in the near future.

Physiopathology and genetics in aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease.

INTRODUCTION: Aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease (AERD) is a clinical entity characterized by hypersensitivity to aspirin leading to asthma and chronic rhinosinusitis with nasosinusal polyposis. The pathophysiology of the disease involves disruption at the level of arachidonic acid metabolism. Therefore, genetic association studies have been focused on the genes coding this pathway. As other mechanisms involved in the genesis of the disease were elucidated, the corresponding genes were also explored. AIM: To describe the association reported in the literature between gene polymorphisms involved in the pathophysiology or therapeutic processes of AERD. RESULTS: There is a genetic association between polymorphisms of genes involved in the synthesis of proteins related to arachidonic acid metabolism (LTC4S, ALOX5), antigen presentation (HLA), inflammation (IL5, IL17), and aspirin metabolism (CYP2C19). CONCLUSIONS: Genetic association research in AERD has evaluated studies of SNPs in metabolic pathways related to arachidonic acid. Recently, whole genome analysis strategies have allowed the detection of new genetic variants that were previously not considered. Furthermore, these studies have identified SNPs that are associated with inflammatory processes, which could serve as diagnostic markers or predictors of the therapeutic response.

Association of TRPM3 Polymorphism (rs10780946) and Aspirin-Exacerbated Respiratory Disease (AERD).

INTRODUCTION: Aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease (AERD) refers to the combination of asthma rhinosinusitis and poliposis; ingestion of aspirin or other non-steroid anti-inflammatory drugs exacerbate asthma-like symptoms. The pathogenesis of AERD is unknown, and genetic and environmental factors contribute to the disease. Our objective is identifying polymorphisms associated with susceptibility in a Mexican mestizo population. METHODS: Primarily we performed custom Illumina goldengate array-based genotyping of 1512 SNPs, carefully selected from a variety of acute/chronic inflammatory lung conditions previously reported. Four SNPs in TRPM3 gene showed the lowest p-values (rs10780946, rs7025694, rs1889915, and rs7047645). We further selected rs10780946 and rs7025694 for validation using Taqman genotyping (n = 743; 288 AERD, 272 ATA, and 183 HC). RESULTS: rs10780946 showed association when compared between AERD and ATA groups under co-dominant (p = 0.006), dominant (p = 0.002), overdominant (p = 0.01), and log-additive (p = 0.03) genetic models. AERD showed increased heterozygous TC (rs10780946-rs7025694) haplotype compared to ATA and HC (p < 0.05). We could not confirm any association between rs7025694 and AERD. CONCLUSION: rs10780946 TRPM3 polymorphism is associated with AERD susceptibility.

Respiratory proteomics: from descriptive studies to personalized medicine.

Respiratory diseases are highly prevalent and affect humankind worldwide, causing extensive morbidity and mortality with the environment playing an important role. Given the complex structure of the airways, sophisticated tools are required for early diagnosis; initial symptoms are nonspecific, and the clinical diagnosis is made frequently late. Over the past few years, proteomics has made high technological progress in mass-spectrometry-based protein identification and has allowed us to gain new insights into disease mechanisms and identify potential novel therapeutic targets. This review will highlight the contributions of proteomics toward the understanding of the respiratory proteome listing potential biomarkers and its potential application to the clinic. We also outline the contributions of proteomics to creating a personalized approach in respiratory medicine.

Identification of Ligustrum lucidum pollen allergens using a proteomics approach.

BACKGROUND: Ligustrum spp. are members of the Oleaceae family, one of the most prominent allergic families worldwide. The genus Ligustrum contains approximately fifty species, including Ligustrum lucidum, which have been widely cultivated as ornamental plants, and its pollen is a source of inhalant allergens associated with respiratory allergic diseases. Little is known about the presence of allergenic proteins in L. lucidum. METHODS: The L. lucidum pollen proteins were extracted by a modified phenolic extraction method. A pool of four sera from mono sensitive patients was analyzed by 2DE immunoblotting and mass spectrometric analysis was performed on 6 immunoreactive protein spots. RESULTS: SDS-PAGE of L. lucidum pollen extract revealed proteins in ranges of 15-150 kDa. The 2DE gel profile of the L. lucidum pollen protein extract showed approximately 180 spots, and the 2DE immunoblots obtained using sera from Ligustrum monosensitive patients as the source of IgE antibodies revealed six allergen protein spots, corresponding to Profilin, Enolase, Fra e 9.01 (ß-1,3-glucanase), Pollen-specific Polygalacturonases, Alanine aminotransferase, and two ATP synthase beta subunits. CONCLUSION: We report for the first time the identification of IgE-reactive proteins from L. lucidum.

Rapid generation of an RBL cellular model to study proteins that cause allergenic reactions in vitro.

Allergic diseases affect nearly 30% of people worldwide. There is a wide range of allergen sources, such as animal dander, food, venom, dust mites, and pollen. The skin prick test is the predominant technique used to identify allergenic sensitivity in vivo; the main problem is that it can be imprecise as many of the allergen extracts are made of mixtures of allergic and nonallergic components, making it difficult to identify the disease-eliciting allergen. An alternative to solve this problem is employing cellular models in vitro that may allow allergen identification, allergy diagnosis, and testing of novel potential compounds that can be used in immunotherapeutics. For example, rat basophilic leukemia (RBL) cells are a well-suited model for studying allergies. Unfortunately, cells generated from RBL cells are not commercially available. Therefore, we developed an RBL model with a degranulation gene reporter capable of recognizing human IgE involved in allergenic sensitivity using commercial plasmids. Employing this model, we successfully evaluated the capacity of union between IgE from allergic patients to allergenic proteins from Oleaceae tree pollen. This RBL cell model can be used as a diagnostic method for sensitivity to any allergens from different sources in vitro.

Lung Function and Asthma Clinical Control in N-ERD Patients, Three-Year Follow-Up in the Context of Real-World Evidence.

Purpose: To describe the lung function and clinical control of asthma in patients with N-ERD during three years of medical follow-up using GINA guidelines. Methods: We evaluated 75 N-ERD and 68 asthma patients (AG). Clinical control, lung function, and asthma treatment were evaluated according to GINA-2014. We compared all variables at baseline and one, two, and three years after treatment. Results: At baseline, the N-ERD group had better basal lung function (LF) than the AG group (p<0.01), and the AG group used higher doses of inhaled corticosteroids than the N-ERD group (52.4% vs 30.5%, p=0.01) and short-term oral corticosteroid (OCS) use (52.4% vs 30.5%, p<0.01). Instead, N-ERD patients needed more use of leukotriene receptor antagonists (LTRA) (29.3% vs 5.9%, p<0.01). This group had better clinical control than the AG group (62.1% vs 34.1%, p<0.01). During the medical follow-up, the LF of the N-ERD group remained at normal values; however, these parameters improved in AG from one year (p<0.01). Likewise, there was a diminished use of high doses of ICS (52.4% vs 33%, p<0.05) and short-term OCS (67.6% vs 20.6%, p<0.01) in asthma patients. However, N-ERD patients still needed more use of LTRAs (p<0.02) during the study. In this context, one-third of N-ERD patients had to use a combination of two drugs to maintain this control. From the second year on, clinical control of asthma was similar in both groups (p>0.05). Conclusion: According to GINA guidelines, only one-third of patients with N-ERD can gradually achieve adequate lung function and good asthma control with a high ICS dosage. Only a very small portion of patients will require the continued use of a second medication as an LTRA to keep their asthma under control.

Biologic Therapies for Asthma and Allergic Disease: Past, Present, and Future.

The discovery of the mechanism underlying allergic disease, mouse models of asthma, and bronchoscopy studies provided initial insights into the role of Th2-type cytokines, including interlukin (IL)-4, IL-5 and IL-13, which became the target of monoclonal antibody therapy. Omalizumab, Benralizumab, Mepolizumab, Reslizumab, and Tezepelumab have been approved. These biologicals have been shown to be good alternative therapies to corticosteroids, particularly in severe asthma management, where they can improve the quality of life of many patients. Given the success in asthma, these drugs have been used in other diseases with type 2 inflammation, including chronic rhinosinusitis with nasal polyps (CRSwNP), atopic dermatitis, and chronic urticaria. Like the Th2-type cytokines, chemokines have also been the target of novel monoclonal therapies. However, they have not proved successful to date. In this review, targeted therapy is addressed from its inception to future applications in allergic diseases.

Air pollution: impact and prevention.

Air pollution is becoming a major health problem that affects millions of people worldwide. In support of this observation, the World Health Organization estimates that every year, 2.4 million people die because of the effects of air pollution on health. Mitigation strategies such as changes in diesel engine technology could result in fewer premature mortalities, as suggested by the US Environmental Protection Agency. This review: (i) discusses the impact of air pollution on respiratory disease; (ii) provides evidence that reducing air pollution may have a positive impact on the prevention of disease; and (iii) demonstrates the impact concerted polices may have on population health when governments take actions to reduce air pollution.

Allergen Immunotherapy: Current and Future Trends.

Allergen immunotherapy (AIT) is the sole disease-modifying treatment for allergic rhinitis; it prevents rhinitis from progressing to asthma and lowers medication use. AIT against mites, insect venom, and certain kinds of pollen is effective. The mechanism of action of AIT is based on inducing immunological tolerance characterized by increased IL-10, TGF-ß, and IgG4 levels and Treg cell counts. However, AIT requires prolonged schemes of administration and is sometimes associated with adverse reactions. Over the last decade, novel forms of AIT have been developed, focused on better allergen identification, structural modifications to preserve epitopes for B or T cells, post-traductional alteration through chemical processes, and the addition of adjuvants. These modified allergens induce clinical-immunological effects similar to those mentioned above, increasing the tolerance to other related allergens but with fewer side effects. Clinical studies have shown that molecular AIT is efficient in treating grass and birch allergies. This article reviews the possibility of a new AIT to improve the treatment of allergic illness.

Identification of Allergenic Proteins in Velvet Mesquite (Prosopis velutina) Pollen: An Immunoproteomics Approach.

Velvet mesquite (Prosopis velutina) is a native legume of the southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico, contributing significantly to the desert ecosystem and playing key ecological roles. It is also an important cause of allergic respiratory disease widely distributed in the Sonoran, Chihuahuan, and Mojave Deserts. However, no allergens from velvet mesquite pollen have been identified to date. Pollen proteins were extracted and analyzed by one- and two-dimensional electrophoresis and immunoblotting using a pool of 11 sera from mesquite-sensitive patients as the primary antibody. IgE-recognized protein spots were identified by mass spectrometry and bioinformatics analysis. Twenty-four unique proteins, including proteins well known as pollen, food, airway, or contact allergens and four proteins not previously reported as pollen allergens, were identified. This is the first report on allergenic proteins in velvet mesquite pollen. These findings will contribute to the development of specific diagnosis and treatment of mesquite pollen allergy.

Association of Allergic Sensitivity and Pollination in Allergic Respiratory Disease: The Role of Pollution.

Purpose: To evaluate the association between allergic sensitivity and pollen counts in patients with allergic respiratory disease (ARD) and its relationship with atmospheric pollutants. Methods: From 2012 to 2018, we evaluated the sensitivity by skin prick test in ARD patients. The pollen counts were analyzed according to international guidelines (2014-2018). The pollutant and meteorological data were obtained at the same time from AIRE-CDMX websites. We analyzed the association between allergic sensitivity and pollen counts using the χ2 test and stratified by disease allergic rhinitis (AR) and AR with asthma (ARwA), periods (before/after 2015), and pollination seasons (S1:2014-2015), (S2:2015-2016), (S3:2016-2017), (S4:2017-2018). Likewise, we correlated the pollen counts with the concentrations of pollutants using Pearson's correlation. For all analyses, we used SPSS v.21 software, and a p-value <0.05 was considered significant. Results: A total of 520 patients were enrolled, of whom 67.3% had ARwA and 33.7% had AR (p<0.05). The frequency of patients allergic to at least one pollen was higher compared with patients sensitive to indoor allergens (55.3% vs 44.6%, p<0.001). A total of 46.8% of the patients were only sensitive to trees in comparison to other outdoor allergens (p<0.001). The Fraxinus sp. and the Cupressaceae family allergens were approximately two times more frequent than the other tree allergens in both diseases (p<0.05). These pollens doubled their counts since 2015 (p<0.001), which was associated with increases in sensitivity for Fraxinus sp. and the Cupressaceae family compared to previous years (p<0.001). Regarding pollutants, the most significant correlations were with PM10, NO2, PMCO for Fraxinus sp. pollen concentrations in all seasons (p≤0.02). Conclusion: The high increases in pollen counts of the Fraxinus sp. and Cupressaceae family were associated with increases in the frequency of sensitization to these species, and this phenomenon correlated with increases in PM10, NO2, and PMCO.

The Role of Enolases in Allergic Disease.

Enolase is one of the most abundant cytosolic enzymes as well as an important glycolytic metalloenzyme highly conserved among organisms from different taxonomical groups. Participation of enolase in processes in which its enzymatic activity is not required has been widely reported. Some of these processes provide special qualities to microorganisms, which favor, in some cases, their pathogenicity. Remarkably, enolase has been reported as an allergen by itself, it is well recognized as allergenic in molds and yeasts, whereas it has also been recognized by the immune system of susceptible individuals acting as a food and inhaled allergen from other diverse sources such as insects, birds, fishes, and plants. To date, 14 enolases have been officially recognized by the World Health Organization/International Union of Immunological Societies Allergen Nomenclature Subcommittee. The use of discovery proteomics has also uncovered novel allergenic enolases, particularly from pollen sources. Here, we review the relevance of enolases as sensitizers and as nonsensitizing cross-reactive allergens in allergic disease.

Neuroimmune Pathophysiology in Asthma.

Asthma is a chronic inflammation of lower airway disease, characterized by bronchial hyperresponsiveness. Type I hypersensitivity underlies all atopic diseases including allergic asthma. However, the role of neurotransmitters (NT) and neuropeptides (NP) in this disease has been less explored in comparison with inflammatory mechanisms. Indeed, the airway epithelium contains pulmonary neuroendocrine cells filled with neurotransmitters (serotonin and GABA) and neuropeptides (substance P[SP], neurokinin A [NKA], vasoactive intestinal peptide [VIP], Calcitonin-gene related peptide [CGRP], and orphanins-[N/OFQ]), which are released after allergen exposure. Likewise, the autonomic airway fibers produce acetylcholine (ACh) and the neuropeptide Y(NPY). These NT/NP differ in their effects; SP, NKA, and serotonin exert pro-inflammatory effects, whereas VIP, N/OFQ, and GABA show anti-inflammatory activity. However, CGPR and ACh have dual effects. For example, the ACh-M3 axis induces goblet cell metaplasia, extracellular matrix deposition, and bronchoconstriction; the CGRP-RAMP1 axis enhances Th2 and Th9 responses; and the SP-NK1R axis promotes the synthesis of chemokines in eosinophils, mast cells, and neutrophils. In contrast, the ACh-α7nAChR axis in ILC2 diminishes the synthesis of TNF-α, IL-1, and IL-6, attenuating lung inflammation whereas, VIP-VPAC1, N/OFQ-NOP axes cause bronchodilation and anti-inflammatory effects. Some NT/NP as 5-HT and NKA could be used as biomarkers to monitor asthma patients. In fact, the asthma treatment based on inhaled corticosteroids and anticholinergics blocks M3 and TRPV1 receptors. Moreover, the administration of experimental agents such as NK1R/NK2R antagonists and exogenous VIP decrease inflammatory mediators, suggesting that regulating the effects of NT/NP represents a potential novel approach for the treatment of asthma.