Racial and ethnic approaches to community health: reducing health disparities by addressing social determinants of health.

Poor people and people of color are more likely to live shorter and sicker lives and are less likely to survive a host of chronic illnesses. Policies and organizational practices that improve the environments in which people live, work, learn, and play can reduce these disparities. Using the World Health Organization's "Call to Action" principles as a discussion framework, we highlight the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's Racial and Ethnic Approaches to Community Health programs that have developed and applied such strategies to address chronic illnesses. Several, in turn, foster health equity.

Factors Associated With HIV Testing Among High-School Girls in the U.S., 2015‒2017.

INTRODUCTION: Few studies have examined the factors associated with HIV testing, specifically among U.S. high-school girls. METHODS: Investigators analyzed 2015 and 2017 Youth Risk Behavior Survey data to calculate the prevalence ratios and the corresponding 95% CIs for the association of HIV-related risk behaviors and other factors with HIV testing. Analyses were completed in March 2020. RESULTS: Approximately 1 in 10 high-school girls reported ever having had an HIV test. Ever having had an HIV test was most common among girls who had ≥4 lifetime sexual partners and those who had ever injected illegal drugs. CONCLUSIONS: High-school girls who engage in behaviors or experience other factors that put them at higher risk for HIV are more likely to have ever gotten tested. However, the prevalence of having ever had an HIV test remains relatively low, indicating that continued efforts may be warranted to reduce risk behaviors and increase testing among high-school girls.

Collection of Data on Sex, Sexual Orientation, and Gender Identity by U.S. Public Health Data and Monitoring Systems, 2015-2018.

We aimed to assess Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) data systems on the extent of data collection on sex, sexual orientation, and gender identity as well as on age and race/ethnicity. Between March and September 2019, we searched 11 federal websites to identify CDC-supported or -led U.S. data systems active between 2015 and 2018. We searched the systems' website, documentation, and publications for evidence of data collection on sex, sexual orientation, gender identity, age, and race/ethnicity. We categorized each system by type (disease notification, periodic prevalence survey, registry/vital record, or multiple sources). We provide descriptive statistics of characteristics of the identified systems. Most (94.1%) systems we assessed collected data on sex. All systems collected data on age, and approximately 80% collected data on race/ethnicity. Only 17.7% collected data on sexual orientation and 5.9% on gender identity. Periodic prevalence surveys were the most common system type for collecting all the variables we assessed. While most U.S. public health data and monitoring systems collect data disaggregated by sex, age, and race/ethnicity, far fewer do so for sexual orientation or gender identity. Standards and examples exist to aid efforts to collect and report these vitally important data. Additionally important is increasing accessibility and appropriately tailored dissemination of reports of these data to public health professionals and other collaborators.

Mind over matter: exploring job stress among female blue-collar workers.

Although overall health has been defined holistically as the integration of a person's optimal mental, physical, social, intellectual, and spiritual well-being, a mental health focus remains on the fringe of many public health efforts. This report describes recent efforts by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) to explore job stress among female blue-collar workers. Using a more holistic approach to understand its impact on blue-collar women's overall health, health-related quality of life (HRQOL) was used to assess optimal human performance. Attempting to encapsulate how overall health affects one's ability to participate and fulfill daily personal/professional tasks, HRQOL yields a broader understanding of the interaction between psychological well-being (mind) and physical functioning (matter). Embedding CDC HRQOL-4 measures into a questionnaire used as part of a larger mixed methods project, blue-collar women responded to questions about their health, including both mental and physical. For these female workers, mental health appeared to be of greater consequence, which could be interpreted as mind being more significant than matter. This paper highlights the findings related to HRQOL issues experienced by these female blue-collar workers and summarizes recommendations for effective individual and organizational approaches to address job stress.

The REACH 2010 logic model: an illustration of expected performance.

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) supports 40 Racial and Ethnic Approaches to Community Health (REACH 2010) community coalitions in designing, implementing, and evaluating community-driven strategies to eliminate health disparities in racial and ethnic groups. The REACH 2010 logic model was developed to assist grantees in identifying, documenting, and evaluating local attributes of the coalition and its partners to reduce and eliminate local health disparities. The model emphasizes the program's theory of change for addressing health disparities; it displays five distinct stages of evaluation for which qualitative and quantitative measurement data are collected. The CDC is relying on REACH 2010 grantees to provide credible evidence that explains how community contributions have changed conditions and behaviors, thus leading to the reduction and elimination of health disparities.

Intervening on the social determinants of cardiovascular disease and diabetes.

Heart disease, cerebrovascular diseases, and type 2 diabetes ranked first, third, and sixth, respectively, among the leading causes of death and disability in the United States in 2000. Racial and ethnic communities (i.e., African Americans, Hispanic-Latino Americans, Native Americans and Alaska Natives, and Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders) disproportionately suffer from these chronic conditions. Traditional behavior change strategies have had some positive, but limited effects and will not likely be sufficient to eliminate these health disparities at the population level. In this commentary, the authors argue for greater intervention research directed at the social determinants of cardiovascular disease and diabetes if we are to reverse current trends in chronic disease prevalence in communities of color. The authors also call for new research questions and study designs that will increase our understanding of the social, policy, and historic context in which disparities are created as a necessary first step in developing interventions aimed at social-contextual and psychosocial risk factors. Promising programs supported by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's Racial and Ethnic Approaches to Community Health (REACH 2010) program and the Division of Diabetes Translation are highlighted.

Health status among REACH 2010 communities, 2001-2002.

The REACH 2010 Risk Factor Survey was conducted in 21 minority communities in the United States during June 2001-August 2002. The survey included 10,953 Blacks/African Americans, 4,257 Hispanics/Latinos, 4,204 Asians, and 1,791 American Indians. Data demonstrate that residents in the minority communities bear a greater socioeconomic, risk factor, and disease burden than do members of the general US population. However, substantial variations in the prevalence of risk factors and chronic conditions also indicated that public health priorities should vary among different racial/ethnic groups, and even among communities within each group, and that culturally sensitive primary and secondary prevention strategies should be tailored to meet community-specific needs.

Having their say: patients' perspectives and the clinical management of diabetes.

Using an illness narratives framework, we provide 1 method that health care providers can use to obtain insight into the perceptions and experiences of their patients living with diabetes. We propose that understanding patients' cultural perspectives help explains their health behavior and can lead to more productive partnering between provider, patient, and community health resources that support adherence and improved health outcomes. We conclude with resources available to assist health care providers in their efforts to deliver culturally appropriate diabetes care and examples of culturally tailored community-based public health initiatives that have been effective in improving diabetes outcomes among African-American patients.

Decreased smoking disparities among Vietnamese and Cambodian communities - Racial and Ethnic Approaches to Community Health (REACH) project, 2002-2006.

Since 1964, smoking prevalence in the United States has declined because of nationwide intervention efforts. However, smoking interventions have not been implemented uniformly throughout all communities. Some of the highest smoking rates in the United States have been reported among Southeast Asian men, and socioeconomic status has been strongly associated with smoking. To compare the effect in reducing racial and ethnic disparities between men in Southeast Asian (Vietnamese and Cambodian) communities and men residing in the same states, CDC analyzed 2002-2006 data from The Racial and Ethnic Approaches to Community Health (REACH) project. The prevalence of current smoking significantly decreased and the quit ratio (percentage of ever smokers who have quit) significantly increased in REACH Vietnamese and Cambodian communities, but changes were minimal among all men in California or all men in Massachusetts (where these communities were located). The smoking rate also declined significantly, and the quit ratio showed an upward trend in U.S. men overall; however, the changes were significantly greater in REACH communities than in the nation. Stratified analyses showed decreasing trends of smoking and increasing trends of quit ratio in persons of both high and low education levels in Vietnamese REACH communities. The relative disparities in the prevalence of smoking and in the quit ratio decreased or were eliminated between less educated Vietnamese and less educated California men and between Cambodian and Massachusetts men regardless of education level. Eliminating health disparities related to tobacco use is a major public health challenge facing Asian communities. The decline in smoking prevalence at the population level in the three REACH Vietnamese and Cambodian communities as described in this report might serve as a model for promising interventions in these populations. The results highlight the potential effectiveness of community-level interventions, such as forming community coalitions, use of local media, and enhancing communities' capacity for systems change. The Office of Minority Health and Health Equity selected this intervention analysis and discussion to provide an example of a program that might be effective for reducing tobacco use-related health disparities in the United States.

Environmental and policy approaches to increasing physical activity: improving access to places for physical activity and dissemination of information.

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's (CDC) Racial and Ethnic Approaches to Community Health (REACH) program funded 40 communities in the United States during 1999­2007. Three of these communities implemented interventions to increase physical activity among African Americans. This case study looks at these interventions and the evidence-based recommendations from the CDC's Community Guide for Preventive Services. These recommendations address creating or improving access to physical activity and the dissemination of information via media campaigns. Findings suggest that although the evidence could not be applied in every respect, culturally-tailored change strategies can meet unique characteristics of African Americans with or at risk for heart disease and may contribute to increased physical activity.

REACH 2010 Surveillance for Health Status in Minority Communities --- United States, 2001--2002.

PROBLEM/CONDITION: The U.S. population continues to diversify, and certain racial/ethnic minorities are growing at a substantially more rapid pace than the majority population. Limited large-scale population-based surveys and surveillance systems are designed to monitor the health status of minority populations. The Racial and Ethnic Approaches to Community Health (REACH) 2010 Risk Factor Survey is conducted annually in minority communities in the United States. The survey focuses on four minority populations (blacks, Hispanics, Asians/Pacific Islanders [A/PIs], and American Indians). REPORTING PERIOD COVERED: 2001-2002. DESCRIPTION OF SYSTEM: Telephone (n = 18 communities) and face-to-face (n = 3 communities) interviews were conducted in 21 communities located in 14 states (Alabama, California, Georgia, Illinois, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Michigan, New York, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Washington). An average of 1,000 minority residents aged >/=18 years in each community was sampled. Interviews were administered in English, Spanish, Vietnamese, Khmer, or Mandarin Chinese. The median response rate for household screenings was 74.0% for households that were reached and 72.0% for family members interviewed. The self-reported data from the community were compared with data derived from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) for the metropolitan/micropolitan statistical area (MMSA) or the state where the community was located and compared with national estimates from BRFSS. RESULTS: Reported education level and household income were markedly lower in minority communities than the general population living in the comparison MMSA or state. More minorities reported being in fair or poor health, but they did not see a doctor because of the cost. Substantial variations were observed in the prevalence of health-risk factors and selected chronic conditions among minority populations and in communities within the same racial/ethnic minority. The median prevalence of obesity among A/PI men and women was 2.9% and 3.6%, respectively, whereas 39.2% and 37.5% of American Indian men and women were obese, respectively. Cigarette smoking was common in American Indian communities, with a median of 42.2% for men and 36.7% for women. Compared with the national level, fewer minority adults reported eating >/=5 fruits and vegetables daily and met recommendations for moderate or vigorous leisure-time physical activity. American Indian communities had a high prevalence of self-reported cardiovascular disease, hypertension, high blood cholesterol, and diabetes. A high prevalence of hypertension and diabetes was also observed in black communities (32.0% and 10.9%, respectively, for men and 40.4% and 14.3%, respectively, for women). Compared with the general U.S. population, a substantially lower percentage of Hispanics and A/PIs had reported receiving preventive services (e.g., cholesterol screenings; glycosylated hemoglobin tests and foot examinations for patients with diabetes; mammograms and Papanicolaou smear tests; and vaccination for influenza and pneumonia among adults aged >/=65 years). INTERPRETATION: Data from the REACH 2010 Risk Factor Survey demonstrate that residents in the minority communities bear greater risks for disease compared with the general population living in the same MMSA or state. Substantial variations in the prevalence of risk factors, chronic conditions, and use of preventive services among different minority populations and in communities within the same racial/ethnic population provide opportunities for public health interventions. These variations also indicate that different racial/ethnic populations and different communities should have different priorities in eliminating health disparities. PUBLIC HEALTH ACTIONS: The continuous surveillance of health status in minority communities is necessary so that culturally sensitive prevention strategies can be tailored to these communities and program interventions evaluated.