R-CHOP treatment for patients with advanced follicular lymphoma: Over 15-year follow-up of JCOG0203.

Anti-CD20 antibody in combination with chemotherapy extends overall survival (OS) in untreated advanced-stage follicular lymphoma (FL), yet the optimal associated therapy is unclear. Data on the cumulative incidence of secondary malignancies postrelapse after conventional immunochemotherapy are scarce. A long-term analysis of rituximab combined with cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine and prednisone (R-CHOP) as first-line treatment was conducted in a randomised clinical trial. A six-cycle R-CHOP regimen was administered every 2 or 3 weeks without rituximab maintenance. A prespecified evaluation was conducted 15 years after the completion of enrolment, following initial analysis results that showed no significant differences in outcomes at the 3-year mark. In-depth analyses were performed on the cohort of 248 patients with FL who were allocated to the two treatment arms. With a median follow-up period of 15.9 years, the 15-year OS was 76.2%. There were no protocol treatment-related deaths, nor were there any fatal infections attributable to subsequent lymphoma treatment. At 15 years, the cumulative incidence of non-haematological and haematological malignancies was 12.8% and 3.7% respectively. Histological transformation appeared after a median of 8 years. R-CHOP maintains safety and efficacy in patients with advanced FL over extended follow-up, making it a viable first-line option for patients with advanced-stage FL.

Serum proteomic identification and validation of two novel atherosclerotic aortic aneurysm biomarkers, profilin 1 and complement factor D.

BACKGROUND: Effective diagnostic biomarkers for aortic aneurysm (AA) that are detectable in blood tests are required because early detection and rupture risk assessment of AA can provide insights into medical therapy and preventive treatments. However, known biomarkers for AA lack specificity and reliability for clinical diagnosis. METHODS: We performed proteome analysis of serum samples from patients with atherosclerotic thoracic AA (TAA) and healthy control (HC) subjects to identify diagnostic biomarkers for AA. Serum samples were separated into low-density lipoprotein, high-density lipoprotein, and protein fractions, and the major proteins were depleted. From the proteins identified in the three fractions, we narrowed down biomarker candidates to proteins uniformly altered in all fractions between patients with TAA and HC subjects and evaluated their capability to discriminate patients with TAA and those with abdominal AA (AAA) from HC subjects using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis. For the clinical validation, serum concentrations of biomarker candidates were measured in patients with TAA and AAA registered in the biobank of the same institute, and their capability for the diagnosis was evaluated. RESULTS: Profilin 1 (PFN1) and complement factor D (CFD) showed the most contrasting profiles in all three fractions between patients with TAA and HC subjects and were selected as biomarker candidates. The PFN1 concentration decreased, whereas the CFD concentration increased in the sera of patients with TAA and AAA when compared with those of HC subjects. The ROC analysis showed that these proteins could discriminate patients with TAA and AAA from HC subjects. In the validation study, these candidates showed significant concentration differences between patients with TAA or AAA and controls. PFN1 and CFD showed sufficient area under the curve (AUC) in the ROC analysis, and their combination further increased the AUC. The serum concentrations of PFN1 and CFD also showed significant differences between patients with aortic dissection and controls in the validation study. CONCLUSION: PFN1 and CFD are potential diagnostic biomarkers for TAA and AAA and measurable in blood samples; their diagnostic performance can be augmented by their combination. These biomarkers may facilitate the development of diagnostic systems to identify patients with AA.

Maintenance of neural stem-progenitor cells by the lysosomal biosynthesis regulators TFEB and TFE3 in the embryonic mouse telencephalon.

Lysosomes have recently been implicated in regulation of quiescence in adult neural stem cells (NSCs). Whether lysosomes regulate the differentiation of neural stem-progenitor cells (NPCs) in the embryonic brain has remained unknown, however. We here show that lysosomes are more abundant in rapidly dividing NPCs than in differentiating neurons in the embryonic mouse neocortex and ganglionic eminence. The genes for TFEB and TFE3, master regulators of lysosomal biosynthesis, as well as other lysosome-related genes were also expressed at higher levels in NPCs than in differentiating neurons. Anatomic analysis revealed accumulation of lysosomes at the apical and basal endfeet of NPCs. Knockdown of TFEB and TFE3, or that of the lysosomal transporter Slc15a4, resulted in premature differentiation of neocortical NPCs. Conversely, forced expression of an active form of TFEB (TFEB-AA) suppressed neuronal differentiation of NPCs in association with upregulation of NPC-related genes. These results together point to a previously unappreciated role for TFEB and TFE3, and possibly for lysosomes, in maintenance of the undifferentiated state of embryonic NPCs. We further found that lysosomes are even more abundant in an NPC subpopulation that rarely divides and includes the embryonic origin of adult NSCs than in the majority of NPCs that divide frequently for construction of the embryonic brain, and that overexpression of TFEB-AA also suppressed the cell cycle of neocortical NPCs. Our results thus also implicate lysosomes in establishment of the slowly dividing, embryonic origin of adult NSCs.

Comparative proteomics of Helicobacter pylori strains reveals geographical features rather than genomic variations.

Helicobacter pylori, a pathogen of various gastric diseases, has many genome sequence variants. Thus, the pathogenesis and infection mechanisms of the H. pylori-driven gastric diseases have not been elucidated. Here, we carried out a large-scale proteome analysis to profile the heterogeneity of the proteome expression of 7 H. pylori strains by using an LC/MS/MS-based proteomics approach combined with a customized database consisting of nonredundant tryptic peptide sequences derived from full genome sequences of 52 H. pylori strains. The nonredundant peptide database enabled us to identify more peptides in the database search of MS/MS data compared with a simply merged protein database. Using this approach, we carried out proteome analysis of genome-unknown strains of H. pylori at as large a scale as genome-known ones. Clustering of the H. pylori strains using proteome profiling slightly differed from the genome profiling and more clearly divided the strains into two groups based on the isolated area. Furthermore, we identified phosphorylated proteins and sites of the H. pylori strains and obtained the phosphorylation motifs located in the N-terminus that are commonly observed in bacteria.

A conditional proteomics approach to identify proteins involved in zinc homeostasis.

Zinc signaling and dynamics play significant roles in many physiological responses and diseases. To understand the physiological roles of zinc in detail, comprehensive identification of proteins under high concentration of mobile zinc ion is crucial. We developed a 'conditional proteomics' approach to identify proteins involved in zinc homeostasis based on a chemical proteomic strategy that utilizes designer zinc-responsive labeling reagents to tag such proteins and quantitative mass spectrometry for their identification. We used this method to elucidate zinc dyshomeostasis induced by nitric-oxide-triggered oxidative stress in glioma cells, and we unveiled dynamic changes of the zinc-related proteomes. Moreover, we characterized unknown zinc-rich vesicles generated by oxidative stress as endoplasmic-reticulum- and Golgi-related vesicles.

Synthesis and evaluation of phenylisoserine derivatives for the SARS-CoV 3CL protease inhibitor.

Synthesis and evaluation of new scaffold phenylisoserine derivatives connected with the essential functional groups against SARS CoV 3CL protease are described. The phenylisoserine backbone was found by simulation on GOLD software and the structure activity relationship study of phenylisoserine derivatives gave SK80 with an IC50 value of 43µM against SARS CoV 3CL R188I mutant protease.

Design and synthesis of a series of serine derivatives as small molecule inhibitors of the SARS coronavirus 3CL protease.

Synthesis of serine derivatives having the essential functional groups for the inhibitor of SARS 3CL protease and evaluation of their inhibitory activities using SARS 3CL R188I mutant protease are described. The lead compounds, functionalized serine derivatives, were designed based on the tetrapeptide aldehyde and Bai's cinnamoly inhibitor, and additionally performed with simulation on GOLD softwear. Structure activity relationship studies of the candidate compounds were given reasonable inhibitors ent-3 and ent-7k against SARS 3CL R188I mutant protease. These inhibitors showed protease selectivity and no cytotoxicity.

Extended Coverage of Singly and Multiply Phosphorylated Peptides from a Single Titanium Dioxide Microcolumn.

We developed a novel approach to enlarge phosphoproteome coverage by selective elution depending on the number of phosphoryl group of peptides from a single titanium dioxide (TiO2) microcolumn using hydrophilic interaction chromatography (HILIC). In this approach, acidic methylphosphonate buffer including organic solvent is used for selective elution of singly phosphorylated peptides from an aliphatic hydroxy acid-modified metal oxide chromatography (HAMMOC) microcolumn and basic elution conditions with phosphate, ammonium hydroxide, and pyrrolidine are then employed for eluting multiply phosphorylated peptides retained by the HAMMOC microcolumn. Finally, we successfully identified 11 300 nonredundant phosphopeptides from triplicate analyses of 100 µg of HeLa cell lysates using this approach. This simple strategy made it possible to accomplish comprehensive and efficient phosphoproteome analysis from limited sample amounts loaded onto a single HAMMOC microcolumn without additional fractionation or enrichment approaches.

Analytical strategies for shotgun phosphoproteomics: status and prospects.

New analytical strategies for phosphoproteomics, both experimental and computational, have been rapidly introduced in recent years, leading to novel biological findings on the role of protein phosphorylation, which have in turn stimulated further development of the analytical techniques. In this review, we describe the development of analytical strategies for LC-MS/MS-based phosphoproteomics, focusing particularly on recent progress in phosphopeptide enrichment, LC-MS/MS measurement and the subsequent computational analysis. High-coverage analysis of the phosphoproteome has largely been achieved by combining pre-fractionation methods with multiple phosphopeptide enrichment approaches, at some cost in LC-MS/MS measurement time and increased sample loss. Key points for the future will be to further increase the selectivity and the recovery of enrichment methods to achieve higher sensitivity and efficiency in LC-MS/MS analysis in order to detect protein phosphorylation comprehensively, including low-abundance proteins. This is expected to lead to a more detailed understanding of the mechanisms and interactions of phosphorylation-mediated regulatory pathways in biological systems.

Large-scale identification of phosphorylation sites for profiling protein kinase selectivity.

Protein kinase selectivity is largely governed by direct binding to the target site(s) on the substrate. Thus, substrate determinants identified from sequences around phosphorylation sites are desirable resources for matching kinases to their substrates. In this study, we tried to identify kinase-selective substrate determinants, including motif sequences, based on large-scale discovery of kinase/substrate pairs. For this purpose, we employed a combination strategy of in vitro kinase reaction followed by LC-MS/MS analysis and applied it to three well-studied kinases: c-AMP regulated protein kinase A (PKA), extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1 (ERK1), and RAC-alpha serine/threonine-protein kinase (AKT1). Cellular proteins were fractionated, dephosphorylated with thermosensitive alkaline phosphatase, phosphorylated with the target kinase, and digested with Lys-C/trypsin, and then phosphopeptides were enriched using TiO2-based hydroxy acid-modified metal oxide chromatography (HAMMOC) and subjected to LC-MS/MS. As a result, 3585, 4347, and 1778 in vitro phosphorylation sites were identified for PKA, ERK1, and AKT1, respectively. As expected, these extensive identifications of phosphorylation sites enabled extraction of both known and novel motif sequences, and this in turn permitted fine discrimination of the specificities of PKA and AKT1, which both belong to the AGC kinase family. Other unique features of the kinases were also characterized, including phospho-acceptor preference (Ser or Thr) and bias ratio of singly/multiply phosphorylated peptides. More motifs were found with this methodology as compared with target kinase phosphorylation of peptides obtained by predigestion of proteins with Lys-C/trypsin. Thus, this approach to characterization of kinase substrate determinants is effective for identification of kinases associated with particular phosphorylation sites.

Phosphoproteome analysis of formalin-fixed and paraffin-embedded tissue sections mounted on microscope slides.

Formalin-fixed and paraffin-embedded (FFPE) sections mounted on microscope slides are one of the largest available resources for retrospective research on various diseases, but quantitative phosphoproteome analysis of FFPE sections has never been achieved because of the extreme difficulty of procuring sufficient phosphopeptides from the limited amounts of proteins on the slides. Here, we present the first protocol for quantitative phosphoproteome analysis of FFPE sections by utilizing phase-transfer surfactant-aided extraction/tryptic digestion of FFPE proteins followed by high-recovery phosphopeptide enrichment via lactic acid-modified titania chromatography. We established that FFPE sections retain a similar phosphoproteome to fresh tissue specimens during storage for at least 9 months, confirming the utility of our method for evaluating phosphorylation profiles in various diseases. We also verified that chemical labeling based on reductive dimethylation of amino groups was feasible for quantitative phosphoproteome analysis of FFPE samples on slides. Furthermore, we improved the LC-MS sensitivity by miniaturizing nanoLC columns to 25 µm inner diameter. With this system, we could identify 1090 phosphopeptides from a single FFPE section obtained from a microscope slide, containing 25.2 ± 5.4 µg of proteins. This protocol should be useful for large-scale phosphoproteome analysis of archival FFPE slides, especially scarce samples from patients with rare diseases.

Hydrophilic interaction chromatography using a meter-scale monolithic silica capillary column for proteomics LC-MS.

A meter-scale monolithic silica capillary column modified with urea-functional groups for hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography (HILIC) was developed for highly efficient separation of biological compounds. We prepared a ureidopropylsilylated monolithic silica capillary column with a minimum plate height of 12 µm for nucleosides and a permeability of 2.1 × 10(-13) m(2), which is comparable with the parameters of monolithic silica-C18 capillary columns. Over 300,000 theoretical plates were experimentally obtained in HILIC with a 4 m long column at 8 MPa; this is the best result yet reported for HILIC. A 2 m long ureidopropylsilylated monolithic silica capillary column was utilized to develop a HILIC mode LC-MS system for proteomics applications. Using tryptic peptides from human HeLa cell lysate proteins, we identified the comparable numbers of peptides and proteins in HILIC with those in reversed-phase liquid chromatography (RPLC) using a C18-modified monolithic silica column when shallow gradients were applied. In addition, approximately 5-fold increase in the peak response on average was observed in HILIC for commonly identified tryptic peptides due to the high acetonitrile concentration in the HILIC mobile phase. Since HILIC mode LC-MS shows orthogonal selectivity to RPLC mode LC-MS, it is useful as a complementary tool to increase proteome coverage in proteomics studies.

Temporal profiling of lapatinib-suppressed phosphorylation signals in EGFR/HER2 pathways.

Lapatinib is a clinically potent kinase inhibitor for breast cancer patients because of its outstanding selectivity for epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and EGFR2 (also known as HER2). However, there is only limited information about the in vivo effects of lapatinib on EGFR/HER2 and downstream signaling targets. Here, we profiled the lapatinib-induced time- and dose-dependent phosphorylation dynamics in SKBR3 breast cancer cells by means of quantitative phosphoproteomics. Among 4953 identified phosphopeptides from 1548 proteins, a small proportion (5-7%) was regulated at least twofold by 1-10 µm lapatinib. We obtained a comprehensive phosphorylation map of 21 sites on EGFR/HER2, including nine novel sites on HER2. Among them, serine/threonine phosphosites located in a small region of HER2 (amino acid residues 1049-1083) were up-regulated by the drug, whereas all other sites were down-regulated. We show that cAMP-dependent protein kinase is involved in phosphorylation of this particular region of HER2 and regulates HER2 tyrosine kinase activity. Computational analyses of quantitative phosphoproteome data indicated for the first time that protein-protein networks related to cytoskeletal organization and transcriptional/translational regulation, such as RNP complexes (i.e. hnRNP, snRNP, telomerase, ribosome), are linked to EGFR/HER2 signaling networks. To our knowledge, this is the first report to profile the temporal response of phosphorylation dynamics to a kinase inhibitor. The results provide new insights into EGFR/HER2 regulation through region-specific phosphorylation, as well as a global view of the cellular signaling networks associated with the anti-breast cancer action of lapatinib.

Rapid and deep profiling of human induced pluripotent stem cell proteome by one-shot NanoLC-MS/MS analysis with meter-scale monolithic silica columns.

Proteome analyses of human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) were carried out on a liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry system using meter-scale monolithic silica-C18 capillary columns without prefractionation. Tryptic peptides from five different iPSC lysates and three different fibroblast lysates (4 µg each) were directly injected onto a 200 cm long, 100 µm i.d. monolithic silica-C18 column and an 8-h gradient was applied at 500 nL/min at less than 20 MPa. We identified 98,977 nonredundant tryptic peptides from 9510 proteins (corresponding to 8712 genes), including low-abundance protein groups (such as 329 protein kinases) from triplicate measurements within 10 days. The obtained proteome profiles of the eight cell lysates were categorized into two groups, iPSC and fibroblast, by hierarchical cluster analysis. Further quantitative analysis based on an exponentially modified protein abundance index approach combined with UniProt keyword enrichment analysis revealed that the iPSC group contains more "transcription regulation"-related proteins, while the fibroblast group contained more "transport"-related proteins. Our results indicate that this simplified one-shot proteomics approach with long monolithic columns is advantageous for rapid, deep, sensitive, and reproducible proteome analysis.

A putative polypeptide N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase/Williams-Beuren syndrome chromosome region 17 (WBSCR17) regulates lamellipodium formation and macropinocytosis.

We previously identified a novel polypeptide N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase (GalNAc-T) gene, which is designated Williams-Beuren syndrome chromosome region 17 (WBSCR17) because it is located in the chromosomal flanking region of the Williams-Beuren syndrome deletion. Recent genome-scale analysis of HEK293T cells treated with a high concentration of N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) demonstrated that WBSCR17 was one of the up-regulated genes possibly involved in endocytosis (Lau, K. S., Khan, S., and Dennis, J. W. (2008) Genome-scale identification of UDP-GlcNAc-dependent pathways. Proteomics 8, 3294-3302). To assess its roles, we first expressed recombinant WBSCR17 in COS7 cells and demonstrated that it was N-glycosylated and localized mainly in the Golgi apparatus, as is the case for the other GalNAc-Ts. Assay of recombinant WBSCR17 expressed in insect cells showed very low activity toward typical mucin peptide substrates. We then suppressed the expression of endogenous WBSCR17 in HEK293T cells using siRNAs and observed phenotypic changes of the knockdown cells with reduced lamellipodium formation, altered O-glycan profiles, and unusual accumulation of glycoconjugates in the late endosomes/lysosomes. Analyses of endocytic pathways revealed that macropinocytosis, but neither clathrin- nor caveolin-dependent endocytosis, was elevated in the knockdown cells. This was further supported by the findings that the overexpression of recombinant WBSCR17 stimulated lamellipodium formation, altered O-glycosylation, and inhibited macropinocytosis. WBSCR17 therefore plays important roles in lamellipodium formation and the regulation of macropinocytosis as well as lysosomes. Our study suggests that a subset of O-glycosylation produced by WBSCR17 controls dynamic membrane trafficking, probably between the cell surface and the late endosomes through macropinocytosis, in response to the nutrient concentration as exemplified by environmental GlcNAc.

Effects of lipid membrane curvature on lipid packing state evaluated by isothermal titration calorimetry.

In this report, we present a novel approach for the elucidation of the physicochemical properties of lipid membranes by isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) to quantify the heat absorbed during the solubilization of vesicles into TritonX-100 micelles. By using large and small unilamellar vesicles for comparison, this method provides calorimetric data on the gel-to-liquid-crystalline phase transition and its curvature effects and, in particular, the enthalpy change upon membrane deformation from a planar to a curved shape, which cannot be obtained by the conventional approach using differential scanning calorimetry. The results showed quantitatively that the increase in membrane curvature increases the enthalpy of 1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine membranes both below and above the phase-transition temperature, and that the effect is more significant for the former condition. The calorimetric data obtained are further discussed in relation to the elastic bending energy of the membranes and membrane-peptide interaction.

Expression of S100A8 protein on B cells is associated with disease activity in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus.

BACKGROUND: Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is an intractable disease characterized by autoantibody production and autoreactive B and T cell proliferation. Although several studies have revealed multiple genetic and environmental associations, the underlying mechanisms remain unknown. METHODS: We performed proteomics and transcriptomics using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry and DNA microarray, using peripheral blood B cells from patients with SLE, and healthy controls (HC). We explored molecules associated with the pathophysiology of SLE by flow cytometry and B cell stimulation assay. RESULTS: We identified for the first time that expression of both S100A8 protein and mRNA were markedly upregulated in SLE B cells. The results obtained using flow cytometry showed that S100A8 was highly expressed on the surface of B cells of patients with active SLE (MFI; HC 102.5 ± 5.97, stable SLE 111.4 ± 12.87, active SLE 586.9 ± 142.9), and S100A8 on the cell surface was decreased after treatment (MFI; pre-treat 1094.5 ± 355.38, post-treat 492.25 ± 247.39); therefore, it is suggested that S100A8 may be a marker for disease activity. The mRNA expression of S100A8 was particularly upregulated in memory B cells of SLE (56.68 fold higher than HC), suggesting that S100A8 may be mainly secreted by memory B cells in the pathogenesis of SLE. CONCLUSIONS: Our results imply that the S100A8 proteins secreted from memory B cells may stimulate granulocytes and monocytes through pattern recognition receptors, activate the innate immune system, and are involved in the pathogenesis of SLE.

[Phosphoproteomics-based cancer molecular-targeting therapy and diagnostics].

Protein phosphorylation, one of the most ubiquitous post-translational modifications of proteins, is reversibly controlled by protein kinases and phosphatases, and regulates a variety of cell functions through cellular signal transduction pathways. These signals are involved in various diseases such as cancer, and often cause the disease itself or its progression. Phosphoproteomics has been explored to analyze protein phosphorylation comprehensively and has been applied to monitoring the entire network of cellular signal transduction. In this review, the frontlines of phosphoproteomics as well as its application to cancer molecular targeting drug discovery, therapy and diagnostics are described.

Effect of age on the vascular proteome in middle cerebral arteries and mesenteric resistance arteries in mice.

Aging is associated with hypertension and brain blood flow dysregulation, which are major risk factors for cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases. Structural remodeling, endothelial dysfunction, or hypercontractility of resistance vessels may cause increased total peripheral resistance and hypertension. Recent studies showed that G protein- and RhoA/Rho-kinase pathways are involved in increased mean arterial pressure (MAP) and arterial tone in middle-aged mice. We aimed to characterize the age-dependent changes in the vascular proteome in normal laboratory mice using mass spectrometry and bioinformatics analyses on middle cerebral arteries and mesenteric resistance arteries from young (3 months) vs. middle-aged (14 months) mice. In total, 31 proteins were significantly affected by age whereas 172 proteins were differentially expressed by vessel type. Hierarchical clustering revealed that 207 proteins were significantly changed or clustered by age. Vitamin B6 pathway, Biosynthesis of antibiotics, Regulation of actin cytoskeleton and Endocytosis were the top enriched KEGG pathways by age. Several proteins in the RhoA/Rho-kinase pathway changed in a manner consistent with hypertension and dysregulation of cerebral perfusion. Although aging had a less profound effect than vessel type on the resistance artery proteome, regulation of actin cytoskeleton, including the RhoA/Rho-kinase pathway, is an important target for age-dependent hypertension.

[Visualization of amyloid formation processes on cell membranes: gangliosides as key molecules for the onset of amyloidosis].

Deposition of insoluble amyloid fibrils in tissues is a common hallmark of a wide range of human diseases referred to as amyloidoses, including Alzheimer's disease, type II diabetes mellitus. The amyloid deposits cause cell dysfunction, death, and subsequently severe impairment in tissues. Elucidation of amyloid formation mechanisms is essential for prevention of the onset and development of amyloidoses. Accumulated experimental evidence demonstrates that membrane lipids enhance the fibril formation of amyloidogenic proteins. Our group demonstrated that amyloid formation by amyloid ß-protein (Aß) was facilitated by gangliosides in lipid raft-like model membranes. Phosphatidylserine and phosphatidylglycerol were also reported to trigger fibril formation by human islet amyloid polypeptide (hIAPP). However, it is not verified whether the proposed lipid-protein interactions can occur on plasma membranes of live cells. The author developed a method for visualizing amyloid fibrils on live cell membranes and investigated the roles of gangliosides and cholesterol in lipid rafts for amyloid formation. Congo red, an amyloid-specific dye, was found to be a promising compound for staining amyloids in live cells. Aß was accumulated on cholesterol-dependent ganglioside-rich domains in PC12 neuronal cells in a time- and concentration-dependent manner, leading to cell death. Nerve growth factor-induced differentiation of PC12 cells increased both gangliosides and cholesterol and thereby greatly potentiated the accumulation and cytotoxic effect of Aß. Amyloid formation by hIAPP was also facilitated by gangliosides in lipid rafts. Membrane lipid compositions, in this case, gangliosides in lipid rafts, actually caused striking change in amyloid formation on cell membranes.