Glucocorticoids regulate lipid mediator networks by reciprocal modulation of 15-lipoxygenase isoforms affecting inflammation resolution.

Glucocorticoids (GC) are potent anti-inflammatory agents, broadly used to treat acute and chronic inflammatory diseases, e.g., critically ill COVID-19 patients or patients with chronic inflammatory bowel diseases. GC not only limit inflammation but also promote its resolution although the underlying mechanisms are obscure. Here, we reveal reciprocal regulation of 15-lipoxygenase (LOX) isoform expression in human monocyte/macrophage lineages by GC with respective consequences for the biosynthesis of specialized proresolving mediators (SPM) and their 15-LOX-derived monohydroxylated precursors (mono-15-OH). Dexamethasone robustly up-regulated pre-mRNA, mRNA, and protein levels of ALOX15B/15-LOX-2 in blood monocyte-derived macrophage (MDM) phenotypes, causing elevated SPM and mono-15-OH production in inflammatory cell types. In sharp contrast, dexamethasone blocked ALOX15/15-LOX-1 expression and impaired SPM formation in proresolving M2-MDM. These dexamethasone actions were mimicked by prednisolone and hydrocortisone but not by progesterone, and they were counteracted by the GC receptor (GR) antagonist RU486. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assays revealed robust GR recruitment to a putative enhancer region within intron 3 of the ALOX15B gene but not to the transcription start site. Knockdown of 15-LOX-2 in M1-MDM abolished GC-induced SPM formation and mono-15-OH production. Finally, ALOX15B/15-LOX-2 upregulation was evident in human monocytes from patients with GC-treated COVID-19 or patients with IBD. Our findings may explain the proresolving GC actions and offer opportunities for optimizing GC pharmacotherapy and proresolving mediator production.

Adult alcohol drinking and emotional tone are mediated by neutral sphingomyelinase during development in males.

Alcohol use, abuse, and addiction, and resulting health hazards are highly sex-dependent with unknown mechanisms. Previously, strong links between the SMPD3 gene and its coded protein neutral sphingomyelinase 2 (NSM) and alcohol abuse, emotional behavior, and bone defects were discovered and multiple mechanisms were identified for females. Here we report strong sex-dimorphisms for central, but not for peripheral mechanisms of NSM action in mouse models. Reduced NSM activity resulted in enhanced alcohol consumption in males, but delayed conditioned rewarding effects. It enhanced the acute dopamine response to alcohol, but decreased monoaminergic systems adaptations to chronic alcohol. Reduced NSM activity increased depression- and anxiety-like behavior, but was not involved in alcohol use for the self-management of the emotional state. Constitutively reduced NSM activity impaired structural development in the brain and enhanced lipidomic sensitivity to chronic alcohol. While the central effects were mostly opposite to NSM function in females, similar roles in bone-mediated osteocalcin release and its effects on alcohol drinking and emotional behavior were observed. These findings support the view that the NSM and multiple downstream mechanism may be a source of the sex-differences in alcohol use and emotional behavior.

Synthesis and biological evaluation of simplified ajudazol derivatives reveal potent 5-lipoxygenase inhibition and considerable apoptotic activity in neuroblastoma cells.

Simplified analogues of the myxobacterial polyketide ajudazol were obtained by synthesis and evaluated for their biological activities. Potent simplified 5-lipoxygenase inhibitors were identified. Moreover, strong antiproliferative and apoptotic activities were observed in brain cancer cell lines at low nano- to micromolar concentrations.

Neutral sphingomyelinase mediates the co-morbidity trias of alcohol abuse, major depression and bone defects.

Mental disorders are highly comorbid and occur together with physical diseases, which are often considered to arise from separate pathogenic pathways. We observed in alcohol-dependent patients increased serum activity of neutral sphingomyelinase. A genetic association analysis in 456,693 volunteers found associations of haplotypes of SMPD3 coding for NSM-2 (NSM) with alcohol consumption, but also with affective state, and bone mineralisation. Functional analysis in mice showed that NSM controls alcohol consumption, affective behaviour, and their interaction by regulating hippocampal volume, cortical connectivity, and monoaminergic responses. Furthermore, NSM controlled bone-brain communication by enhancing osteocalcin signalling, which can independently supress alcohol consumption and reduce depressive behaviour. Altogether, we identified a single gene source for multiple pathways originating in the brain and bone, which interlink disorders of a mental-physical co-morbidity trias of alcohol abuse-depression/anxiety-bone disorder. Targeting NSM and osteocalcin signalling may, thus, provide a new systems approach in the treatment of a mental-physical co-morbidity trias.

Communication between human macrophages and epithelial cancer cell lines dictates lipid mediator biosynthesis.

In tumors, cancer cells coexist and communicate with macrophages that can promote tumorigenesis via pro-inflammatory signals. Lipid mediators (LMs), produced mainly by cyclooxygenases (COXs) or lipoxygenases (LOs), display a variety of biological functions with advantageous or deleterious consequences for tumors. Here, we investigated how the communication between human monocyte-derived M2-like macrophages (MDM) and cancer cells affects LM biosynthesis using LM metabololipidomics. Coculture of human MDM with human A549 epithelial lung carcinoma cells, separated by a semipermeable membrane, increased LM formation by MDM upon subsequent activation. Strongest effects were observed on 5-LO-derived LM. While expression of the 5-LO pathway was not altered, p38 MAPK and the downstream MAPKAPK-2 that phosphorylates and stimulates 5-LO were more susceptible for activation in MDM upon precedent coculture with A549 cells as compared to monocultures. Accordingly, the p38 MAPK inhibitor Skepinone-L selectively prevented this increase in 5-LO product formation. Also, 5-LO-/15-LO-derived LM including lipoxin A4, resolvin D2 and D5 were elevated after coculture with A549 cells, correlating to increased 15-LO-1 protein levels. In contrast to cancer cells, coincubation with non-transformed human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) did not affect LM production in MDM. Vice versa, MDM increased COX-2 protein expression and COX-mediated prostanoid formation in cancer cells. Conclusively, our data reveal that the communication between MDM and cancer cells can strikingly modulate the biosynthetic capacities to produce bioactive LM with potential relevance for tumor biology.

Whole-genome analysis of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium causing nosocomial outbreaks suggests the occurrence of few endemic clonal lineages in Bavaria, Germany.

OBJECTIVES: Infections caused by vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium (VREfm) represent a major public health concern due to limited treatment options. Among invasive isolates of VREfm, ST117, ST80 and ST78 represent the most frequently detected STs by MLST in Germany. In this study, we investigated the genetic diversity of isolates of VREfm recovered from different nosocomial outbreaks in Bavaria, Germany, by WGS. METHODS: Between January 2018 and April 2019, 99 non-replicate isolates of VREfm originating from nosocomial outbreaks at eight different hospitals in Bavaria were investigated for genetic diversity by WGS. In detail, complex types (CTs) were identified by core-genome MLST. Furthermore, an SNP analysis was performed for all VREfm strains. RESULTS: Most of the isolates of this study (76%) belonged to three major clonal groups, which occurred in at least three hospitals: ST80/CT1065 vanB (n = 45; six hospitals), ST117/CT71 vanB (n = 11; four hospitals) and ST78/CT894like vanA (n = 19; three hospitals). Moreover, isolates of the predominant lineage ST80/CT1065 vanB showed a maximum difference of 36 SNPs as revealed by SNP analysis. CONCLUSIONS: Whole-genome analysis of VREfm causing nosocomial outbreaks suggests the occurrence of few endemic clonal lineages in Bavarian hospital settings, namely ST80/CT1065 vanB, ST117/CT71 vanB and ST78/CT894like vanA. Further studies are needed for a better understanding of the factors affecting the successful spread of the above-mentioned lineages.

Targeting biosynthetic networks of the proinflammatory and proresolving lipid metabolome.

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs interfere with the metabolism of arachidonic acid to proinflammatory prostaglandins and leukotrienes by targeting cyclooxygenases (COXs), 5-lipoxygenase (LOX), or the 5-LOX-activating protein (FLAP). These and related enzymes act in conjunction with marked crosstalk within a complex lipid mediator (LM) network where also specialized proresolving LMs (SPMs) are formed. Here, we present how prominent LM pathways can be differentially modulated in human proinflammatory M1 and proresolving M2 macrophage phenotypes that, upon exposure to Escherichia coli, produce either abundant prostaglandins and leukotrienes (M1) or SPMs (M2). Targeted liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry-based metabololipidomics was applied to analyze and quantify the specific LM profiles. Besides expected on-target actions, we found that: 1) COX or 15-LOX-1 inhibitors elevate inflammatory leukotriene levels, 2) FLAP and 5-LOX inhibitors reduce leukotrienes in M1 but less so in M2 macrophages, 3) zileuton blocks resolution-initiating SPM biosynthesis, whereas FLAP inhibition increases SPM levels, and 4) that the 15-LOX-1 inhibitor 3887 suppresses SPM formation in M2 macrophages. Conclusively, interference with discrete LM biosynthetic enzymes in different macrophage phenotypes considerably affects the LM metabolomes with potential consequences for inflammation-resolution pharmacotherapy. Our data may allow better appraisal of the therapeutic potential of these drugs to intervene with inflammatory disorders.-Werner, M., Jordan, P. M., Romp, E., Czapka, A., Rao, Z., Kretzer, C., Koeberle, A., Garscha, U., Pace, S., Claesson, H.-E., Serhan, C. N., Werz, O., Gerstmeier, J. Targeting biosynthetic networks of the proinflammatory and proresolving lipid metabolome.

15-Hydroperoxy-PGE2 : Intermediate in Mammalian and Algal Prostaglandin Biosynthesis.

Arachidonic-acid-derived prostaglandins (PGs), specifically PGE2 , play a central role in inflammation and numerous immunological reactions. The enzymes of PGE2 biosynthesis are important pharmacological targets for anti-inflammatory drugs. Besides mammals, certain edible marine algae possess a comprehensive repertoire of bioactive arachidonic-acid-derived oxylipins including PGs that may account for food poisoning. Described here is the analysis of PGE2 biosynthesis in the red macroalga Gracilaria vermiculophylla that led to the identification of 15-hydroperoxy-PGE2 , a novel precursor of PGE2 and 15-keto-PGE2 . Interestingly, this novel precursor is also produced in human macrophages where it represents a key metabolite in an alternative biosynthetic PGE2 pathway in addition to the well-established arachidonic acid-PGG2 -PGH2 -PGE2 route. This alternative pathway of mammalian PGE2 biosynthesis may open novel opportunities to intervene with inflammation-related diseases.

Algal Oxylipins Mediate the Resistance of Diatoms against Algicidal Bacteria.

Algicidal bacteria can lyse microalgal blooms and trigger shifts within plankton communities. Resistant algal species can escape lysis, and have the opportunity to dominate the phytoplankton after a bacterial infection. Despite their important function in ecosystem regulation, little is known about mechanisms of resistance. Here, we show that the diatom Chaetoceros didymus releases eicosanoid oxylipins into the medium, and that the lytic algicidal bacterium, Kordia algicida, induces the production of several wound-activated oxylipins in this resistant diatom. Neither releases nor an induction occurs in the susceptible diatom Skeletonema costatum that is lysed by the bacterium within a few days. Among the upregulated oxylipins, hydroxylated eicosapentaenoic acids (HEPEs) dominate. However, also, resolvins, known lipid mediators in mammals, increase upon exposure of the algae to the algicidal bacteria. The prevailing hydroxylated fatty acid, 15-HEPE, significantly inhibits growth of K. algicida at a concentration of approximately 1 µM. The oxylipin production may represent an independent line of defense of the resistant alga, acting in addition to the previously reported upregulation of proteases.

Assembly and Function of the Precursor B-Cell Receptor.

During early stages of development, precursor B lymphocytes express a characteristic type of antigen receptor known as the pre-B-cell receptor (pre-BCR). This receptor differs from conventional BCRs in that it possesses a germ line-encoded surrogate light chain (SLC), which is associated with the signal transduction machinery via heavy chain (HC) proteins that have been generated by productive rearrangement of the immunoglobulin HC genes. The pre-BCR marks a key step of B-cell commitment, as it activates the B-cell-specific signaling cascade and mediates the selection, expansion, and differentiation of cells expressing a productively rearranged HC protein. Another difference between the pre-BCR and conventional BCR might be the initial event that triggers receptor activation, as the pre-BCR is activated in the absence of external ligands, while conventional BCRs require antigen for activation. Nonetheless, the pre-BCR downstream signaling cascade is largely similar to that of the BCR suggesting that the characteristic LC of the pre-BCR mediates important receptor interactions thereby providing distinctive, germ line-encoded features to the pre-BCR. In fact, the SLC enables the pre-BCR to act as a surrogate autoreactive receptor. Here, we outline the structure and function of the pre-BCR and how the autonomous signaling capacity might be a direct consequence of pre-BCR assembly. In addition to its role in early B-cell development, we discuss how the ordered activation of downstream signaling cascades enables the pre-BCR to activate seemingly opposing cellular programs such as proliferation and differentiation.

The hallucinogenic diterpene salvinorin A inhibits leukotriene synthesis in experimental models of inflammation.

Leukotrienes (LTs) are lipid mediators derived from arachidonic acid (AA) involved in a number of autoimmune/inflammatory disorders including asthma, allergic rhinitis and cardiovascular diseases. Salvinorin A (SA), a diterpene isolated from the hallucinogenic plant Salvia divinorum, is a well-established analgesic compound, but its anti-inflammatory properties are under-researched and its effects on LT production is unknown to date. Here, we studied the possible effect of SA on LT production and verified its actions on experimental models of inflammation in which LTs play a prominent role. Peritoneal macrophages (PM) stimulated by calcium ionophore A23187 were chosen as in vitro system to evaluate the effect of SA on LT production. Zymosan-induced peritonitis in mice and carrageenan-induced pleurisy in rats were selected as LT-related models to evaluate the effect of SA on inflammation as well as on LT biosynthesis. SA inhibited, in a concentration-dependent manner, A23187-induced LTB4 biosynthesis in isolated PM. In zymosan-induced peritonitis, SA inhibited cell infiltration, myeloperoxidase activity, vascular permeability and LTC4 production in the peritoneal cavity without decreasing the production of prostaglandin E2. In carrageenan-induced pleurisy in rats, a more sophisticated model of acute inflammation related to LTs, SA significantly inhibited LTB4 production in the inflammatory exudates, along with reducing the phlogistic process in the lung. In conclusion, SA inhibited LT production and it was effective in experimental models of inflammation in which LTs play a pivotal role. SA might be considered as a lead compound for the development of drugs useful in LTs-related diseases.

Premature terminal differentiation protects from deregulated lymphocyte activation by ITK-Syk.

The development of hematopoietic neoplasms is often associated with mutations, altered gene expression or chromosomal translocations. Recently, the t(5, 9)(q33;q22) translocation was found in a subset of peripheral T cell lymphomas and was shown to result in an IL-2-inducible kinase-spleen tyrosine kinase (ITK-Syk) fusion transcript. In this study, we show that T cell-specific expression of the ITK-Syk oncogene in mice leads to an early onset and aggressive polyclonal T cell lymphoproliferation with concomitant B cell expansion and systemic inflammation by 7-9 wk of age. Because this phenotype is strikingly different from previous work showing that ITK-Syk expression causes clonal T cell lymphoma by 20-27 wk of age, we investigated the underlying molecular mechanism in more detail. We show that the reason for the severe phenotype is the lack of B-lymphocyte-induced maturation protein-1 (Blimp-1) induction by low ITK-Syk expression. In contrast, high ITK-Syk oncogene expression induces terminal T cell differentiation in the thymus by activating Blimp-1, thereby leading to elimination of oncogene-expressing cells early in development. Our data suggest that terminal differentiation is an important mechanism to prevent oncogene-expressing cells from malignant transformation, as high ITK-Syk oncogene activity induces cell elimination. Accordingly, for transformation, a specific amount of oncogene is required, or alternatively, the induction of terminal differentiation is defective.

Humudifucol and Bioactive Prenylated Polyphenols from Hops (Humulus lupulus cv. "Cascade").

Humulus lupulus (hop plant) has long been used in traditional medicine as a sedative and antimicrobial agent. More recently, attention has been devoted to the phytoestrogenic activity of the plant extracts as well as to the anti-inflammatory and chemopreventive properties of the prenylated chalcones present. In this study, an Italian sample of H. lupulus cv. "Cascade" has been investigated and three new compounds [4-hydroxycolupulone (6), humudifucol (7) and cascadone (8)] have been purified and identified by means of NMR spectroscopy along with four known metabolites. Notably, humudifucol (7) is the first prenylated dimeric phlorotannin discovered in nature. Because structurally related phloroglucinols from natural sources were found previously to inhibit microsomal prostaglandin E2 synthase (mPGES)-1 and 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO), the isolated compounds were evaluated for their bioactivity against these pro-inflammatory target proteins. The prenylated chalcone xanthohumol inhibited both enzymes at low µM concentrations.

Activation and modulation of recombinantly expressed serotonin receptor type 3A by terpenes and pungent substances.

Serotonin receptor type 3 (5-HT3 receptor) is a ligand-gated ion channel that is expressed in the central nervous system (CNS) as well as in the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The receptor plays an important role in regulating peristalsis of the gastrointestinal tract and in functions such as emesis, cognition and anxiety. Therefore, a variety of pharmacologically active substances target the 5-HT3 receptor to treat chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting. The 5-HT3 receptors are activated, antagonized, or modulated by a wide range of chemically different substances, such as 2-methyl-serotonin, phenylbiguanide, setrones, or cannabinoids. Whereas the action of all of these substances is well described, less is known about the effect of terpenoids or fragrances on 5-HT3A receptors. In this study, we screened a large number of natural odorous and pungent substances for their pharmacological action on recombinantly expressed human 5-HT3A receptors. The receptors were functionally expressed in Xenopus oocytes and characterized by electrophysiological recordings using the two-electrode voltage-clamp technique. A screening of two odorous mixes containing a total of 200 substances revealed that the monoterpenes, thymol and carvacrol, act as both weak partial agonists and positive modulators on the 5-HT3A receptor. In contrast, the most effective blockers were the terpenes, citronellol and geraniol, as well as the pungent substances gingerol, capsaicin and polygodial. In our study, we identified new modulators of 5-HT3A receptors out of the classes of monoterpenes and vanilloid substances that frequently occur in various plants.

Borneol inhibits TRPA1, a proinflammatory and noxious pain-sensing cation channel.

Borneol, a natural product isolated from several species of Artemisia, Blumea and Kaempferia, has a widespread use in traditional medicine. TRP ion channels are a class of nonselective cation channel proteins involved in a variety of physiological and pathological processes in mammals. TRPA1, a member of TRP family of cation channels, is involved in plethora of processes including noxious-cold, noxious-pain sensations, inflammation and the detection of irritant chemicals. Borneol is chemically related to camphor (a known inhibitor of TRPA1 ion channels); therefore, it is beneficial to investigate the effects of borneol on TRPA1. In the present investigation it was found that borneol inhibits TRPA1 mediated cationic currents in low millimolar range (IC50 0.3mM) in heterologous expression systems like Xenopus oocytes and in neurons cultured from trigeminal ganglia. Effects of nicotine, a known chemical irritant and agonist of TRPA1 are also inhibited by borneol in both systems. It is concluded that borneol, being an inhibitor of TRPA1, could be a safer therapeutic-combination in clinical situations where TRPA1 channelopathies like neuropathic-pain, trigeminal neuralgia or nicotine withdrawal treatments are involved.

Role of PI3K in the generation and survival of B cells.

Engagement of the B-cell antigen receptor (BCR) or its precursor, the pre-BCR, induces a cascade of biochemical reactions that regulate the differentiation, selection, survival, and activation of B cells. This cascade is initiated by receptor-associated tyrosine kinases that activate multiple downstream signaling pathways. Since it is required for metabolism, cell growth, development, and survival, the activation of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)-dependent pathways represents a crucial event of BCR/pre-BCR signaling. The phosphorylated substrates of the PI3K promote specific recruitment of selected signaling proteins to the plasma membrane, where important signaling complexes are formed to mediate the above-mentioned biological processes. Here, we review the principles of PI3K signaling and highlight the role of an important PI3K-driven module in VDJ recombination of immunoglobulin (Ig) genes during early B-cell development as compared with class switch recombination of Ig genes in mature B cells after activation by specific antigens. Furthermore, we discuss the role of PI3K in the survival of mature B cells, which is strictly dependent on BCR expression and basal BCR signaling.

Analysis of the effectiveness of hygiene measures and COVID-19 vaccination at a tertiary-care university hospital during the first two years of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic.

Objective: Assessment of the effectiveness of protective measures at a tertiary-care hospital during the SARS-CoV-2 infection waves to provide advice for future pandemics. Design: Retrospective cohort study among hospital staff using in-house surveillance data. Setting: University Hospital Erlangen (UKER), a tertiary-care provider in Bavaria, Germany. Methods: We outline the preventive measures introduced at UKER and retrospectively assess their effectiveness using anonymized monitoring data that were collected during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic from February 2020 to the end of January 2022. Analysed data includes the incidence of SARS-CoV-2 infections among employees, the frequency of high-risk contacts with infected patients or staff members and breakthrough infections considering the context of exposure. Results: The cumulative incidence of SARS-CoV-2 infections among UKER employees was higher before, but lower after the vaccination campaign when compared to the general population. Healthcare workers (HCW), notably physicians and nurses, were especially at risk of infection compared to other UKER employees with less direct patient contact (OR 1.36 [95% CI 1.18-1.57 p < 0.001]). Breakthrough infections mostly occurred after exposure during private life, i.e. in situations without protective equipment. The frequency of high-risk contacts during direct patient care remained stable after SARS-CoV-2 vaccination. Prior to vaccination, 5.2% of HCW with direct patient care tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 within 14 days. After vaccination until the onset of the Omicron wave, conversion rate dropped to 0%. Conclusions: This study provides real-world data on the effectiveness of vaccination, contact tracing, personal protective equipment and general hygiene measures during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. Based on our findings, we recommend a protective approach combining all these preventive measures.

Amiloride derivatives are effective blockers of insect odorant receptors.

Heteromeric insect odorant receptors (ORs) form ligand-activated nonselective cation channels in recombinant expression systems. We performed a pharmacological characterization of Drosophila melanogaster and Bombyx mori ORs expressed in the Xenopus laevis oocyte expression system and characterized them using the 2-electrode voltage clamp. We identified amiloride derivatives as high-affinity blockers, which inhibit the ion current through the channel in a low micromolar range. For the heteromeric Drosophila Or47a + DmelOrco receptor, the potency sequence (IC(50)) is HMA [5-(N,N-hexamethylene)amiloride] (3.9 µM), MIA [5-(N-methyl-N-isobutyl)amiloride] (11.0 µM), and DMA [5-(N,N-dimethyl)amiloride] (113.3 µM). Amiloride itself is nearly ineffective. Other tested insect ORs (Drosophila Or49b + DmelOrco, B. mori BmorOr1 + BmorOrco) were blocked in a similar fashion suggesting that the amiloride derivatives were potential general blockers of all receptor combinations. Our results suggest that pyrazine derivatives of amiloride are useful probes to study the mechanism of chemosensory transduction in insects in more detail.

Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Arnica montana Planta Tota versus Flower Extracts: Analytical, In Vitro and In Vivo Mouse Paw Oedema Model Studies.

Arnica montana is well known for its anti-inflammatory properties. While the anti-inflammatory activity of Arnica flowers (Arnicae flos) has been extensively studied, that of the whole plant (Arnicae planta tota) is less characterized. We compared the ability of Arnicae planta tota and Arnicae flos extracts to inhibit the pro-inflammatory NF-κB-eicosanoid pathway, using several in vitro and in vivo assays. We showed that Arnicae planta tota inhibited NF-κB reporter activation, with an IC50 of 15.4 µg/mL (vs. 52.5 µg/mL for Arnicae flos). Arnicae planta tota also inhibited LPS-induced expression of ALOX5 and PTGS2 genes in human differentiated macrophages. ALOX5 and PTGS2 encode the 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) enzymes that initialize the conversion of arachidonic acid into leukotrienes and prostaglandins, respectively. Arnicae planta tota inhibited 5-LO and COX-2 enzymatic activity in vitro and in human primary peripheral blood cells, with lower IC50 compared to Arnicae flos. Finally, Arnicae planta tota applied topically reduced carrageenan-induced mouse paw oedema more efficiently than Arnicae flos. Altogether, Arnicae planta tota displayed a superior anti-inflammatory activity compared to Arnicae flos, suggesting that Arnicae-planta-tota-containing products might be more effective in alleviating the manifestations of acute inflammation than those based on Arnicae flos alone.