The sourdough fermentation is the powerful process to exploit the potential of legumes, pseudo-cereals and milling by-products in baking industry.

In the era of fighting wastes and paying close attention to sustainability and new protein sources, legumes, pseudo-cereals and milling by-products deserve all the efforts for increasing their consumption. Even with obvious peculiarities, a common trait characterizes these heterogeneous matrixes: unquestionable nutritional and functional value combined with some technological, sensory and/or anti-nutritional weaknesses, which unfortunately limit the exploitation and consumption. With the perspective of their use to fortify staple baked goods, we reviewed the main technological, nutritional and functional features of various legumes and pseudo-cereals, and milling by-products. Notwithstanding the potential of other technological solutions, we reported numerous evidences that qualified the sourdough fermentation as the most sustainable and powerful process to exploit the technological, nutritional and functional features of these matrixes and to limit or eliminate weak attributes. Sourdough fermentations tailored for specific matrixes allowed the fortification of staple baked goods with abundant levels of legumes, pseudo-cereals or milling by-products while keeping high consumer acceptance.

Sourdough lactic acid bacteria: exploration of non-wheat cereal-based fermentation.

Cereal-based foods represent a very important source of biological as well as of cultural diversity, as testified by the wide range of derived fermented products. A trend that is increasingly attracting bakery industries as well as consumers is the use of non-conventional flours for the production of novel products, characterised by peculiar flavour and better nutritional value. Lactic acid bacteria microbiota of several non-wheat cereals and pseudo-cereals has been recently deeply investigated with the aim of studying the biodiversity and finding starter cultures for sourdough fermentation. Currently, the use of ancient or ethnic grains is mainly limited to traditional typical foods and the bread making process is not well standardised with consequent negative effects on the final properties. The challenge in fermenting such grains is represented by the necessity to combine good technology and sensory properties with nutritional/health benefits. The choice of the starter cultures has a critical impact on the final quality of cereal-based products, and strains that dominate and outcompete contaminants should be applied for specific sourdough fermentations. In this sense, screening and characterisation of the lactic acid bacteria microbiota is very useful in the improvement of a peculiar flour, from both a nutritional and technological point of view.

Molecular insights on the origin and development of waxy genotypes in major crop plants.

Starch is a significant ingredient of the seed endosperm with commercial importance in food and industry. Crop varieties with glutinous (waxy) grain characteristics, i.e. starch with high amylopectin and low amylose, hold longstanding cultural importance in some world regions and unique properties for industrial manufacture. The waxy character in many crop species is regulated by a single gene known as GBSSI (or waxy), which encodes the enzyme Granule Bound Starch Synthase1 with null or reduced activity. Several allelic variants of the waxy gene that contribute to varying levels of amylose content have been reported in different crop plants. Phylogenetic analysis of protein sequences and the genomic DNA encoding GBSSI of major cereals and recently sequenced millets and pseudo-cereals have shown that GBSSI orthologs form distinct clusters, each representing a separate crop lineage. With the rapidly increasing demand for waxy starch in food and non-food applications, conventional crop breeding techniques and modern crop improvement technologies such as gene silencing and genome editing have been deployed to develop new waxy crop cultivars. The advances in research on waxy alleles across different crops have unveiled new possibilities for modifying the synthesis of amylose and amylopectin starch, leading to the potential creation of customized crops in the future. This article presents molecular lines of evidence on the emergence of waxy genes in various crops, including their genesis and evolution, molecular structure, comparative analysis and breeding innovations.

Grains in a Modern Time: A Comprehensive Review of Compositions and Understanding Their Role in Type 2 Diabetes and Cancer.

Globally, type 2 diabetes (T2D) and Cancer are the major causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide and are considered to be two of the most significant public health concerns of the 21st century. Over the next two decades, the global burden is expected to increase by approximately 60%. Several observational studies as well as clinical trials have demonstrated the health benefits of consuming whole grains to lower the risk of several chronic non-communicable diseases including T2D and cancer. Cereals grains are the primary source of energy in the human diet. The most widely consumed pseudo cereals include (quinoa, amaranth, and buckwheat) and cereals (wheat, rice, and corn). From a nutritional perspective, both pseudo cereals and cereals are recognized for their complete protein, essential amino acids, dietary fibers, and phenolic acids. The bran layer of the seed contains the majority of these components. Greater intake of whole grains rather than refined grains has been consistently linked to a lower risk of T2D and cancer. Due to their superior nutritional compositions, whole grains make them a preferred choice over refined grains. The modulatory effects of whole grains on T2D and cancer are also likely to be influenced by several mechanisms; some of these effects may be direct while others involve altering the composition of gut microbiota, increasing the abundance of beneficial bacteria, and lowering harmful bacteria, increasing insulin sensitivity, lowering solubility of free bile acids, breaking protein down into peptides and amino acids, producing short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), and other beneficial metabolites that promote the proliferation in the colon which modulate the antidiabetic and anticancer pathway. Thus, the present review had two aims. First, it summarized the recent knowledge about the nutritional composition and bioactive acids in pseudo cereals (quinoa, amaranth, and buckwheat) and cereals (wheat, rice, and corn); the second section summarized and discussed the progress in recent human studies, such as observational (cross-sectional studies, case-control studies, and cohort studies) and intervention studies to understand their role in T2D and cancer including the potential mechanism. Overall, according to the scientific data, whole grain consumption may reduce the incidence of T2D and cancer. Future studies should carry out randomized controlled trials to validate observational results and establish causality. In addition, the current manuscript encourages researchers to investigate the specific mechanisms by which whole grains exert their beneficial effects on health by examining the effects of different types of specific protein, dietary fibers, and phenolic acids that might help to prevent or treat T2D and cancer.

Mycotoxin Determination and Occurrence in Pseudo-Cereals Intended for Food and Feed: A Review.

Nowadays, pseudo-cereals' consumption is increasing due to their health benefits as they possess an excellent nutrient profile. Whole pseudo-cereal grains are rich in a wide range of compounds, namely flavonoids, phenolic acids, fatty acids, and vitamins with known beneficial effects on human and animal health. Mycotoxins are common contaminants in cereals and by-products; however, the study of their natural occurrence in pseudo-cereals is currently scarce. Pseudo-cereals are similar to cereal grains; thus, mycotoxin contamination is expected to occur in pseudo-cereals. Indeed, mycotoxin-producing fungi have been reported in these matrices and, consequently, mycotoxin contents have been reported too, especially in buckwheat samples, where ochratoxin A and deoxynivalenol reached levels up to 1.79 µg/kg and 580 µg/kg, respectively. In comparison to cereal contamination, mycotoxin levels detected in pseudo-cereal samples are lower; however, more studies are necessary in order to describe the mycotoxin pattern in these samples and to establish maximum levels that ensure human and animal health protection. In this review, mycotoxin occurrence in pseudo-cereal samples as well as the main extraction methods and analytical techniques to determine them are described, showing that mycotoxins can be present in pseudo-cereal samples and that the most employed techniques for their determination are liquid and gas chromatography coupled to different detectors.

Daily assessment of malting-induced changes in the volatile composition of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), rye (Secale cereale L.), and quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.).

Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) is the traditional malting cereal and is primarily used for beverages, whereas rye (Secale cereale L.) is mainly used in baked goods. Conversely, quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is a gluten-free pseudocereal, rich in starch and high-quality proteins, and can be used in a similar manner to cereals. The sharp bitterness of unprocessed rye and the earthy aroma of native quinoa interfere with the acceptance and development of food products. Malting of barley is known to improve its processing properties and enhance its sensory quality. Therefore, the effect of germination and kilning on malt quality (e.g., viscosity) as well as the volatile composition of barley, rye, and quinoa were monitored. Moreover, temporal changes on the volatile patterns of rye and quinoa at the different stages of malting were compared to barley. In total, 34 volatile compounds were quantified in the three (pseudo)cereals; the alcohol group dominated in all unprocessed samples, in particular, compounds contributing grassy notes (e.g., hexan-1-ol). These grassy compounds remained abundant during germination, whereas kilning promoted the formation of Maillard reaction volatiles associated with malty and roasted notes. The volatile profiles of kilned barley and quinoa were characterized by high concentrations of the malty Strecker aldehyde, 3-methylbutanal. In contrast, green, floral notes imparted by phenylacetaldehyde remained dominant in rye malt. Hierarchical cluster analysis of the volatile data discriminated the samples into the different stages of malting, confirmed the similarities in the volatile patterns of barley and rye, and indicated clear differences to the quinoa samples. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: In this study, the effect of germination and kilning on the chemical and volatile composition of barley, rye, and quinoa was examined. Temporal changes on the volatile patterns of rye and quinoa at different stages of malting were compared to barley. Understanding the differences among the (pseudo)cereals as well as the influence of processing on malt quality and aroma development can help find new food applications.

A Review of the Changes Produced by Extrusion Cooking on the Bioactive Compounds from Vegetal Sources.

The demand for healthy ready-to-eat foods like snacks is increasing. Physical modification of vegetal food matrices through extrusion generates significant changes in the chemical composition of the final product. There is a great variety of food matrices that can be used in extrusion, most of them being based on cereals, legumes, fruits, vegetables, or seeds. The aim of this review was to summarize the main effects of the extrusion process on the bioactive compounds content, namely phenolics, terpenes, vitamins, minerals, and fibers of vegetal mixes, as well as on their biological activity. The literature reported contradictory results regarding the changes in bioactive compounds after extrusion, mainly due to the differences in the processing conditions, chemical composition, physicochemical properties, and nutritional value of the extruded material and quantification methods. The thermolabile phenolics and vitamins were negatively affected by extrusion, while the fiber content was proved to be enhanced. Further research is needed regarding the interactions between bioactive components during extrusion, as well as a more detailed analysis of the impact of extrusion on the terpenes since there are few papers dealing with this aspect.

Reformulating Bread Using Sprouted Pseudo-cereal Grains to Enhance Its Nutritional Value and Sensorial Attributes.

Sprouting is an effective treatment for improving nutritional and bioactive properties as well as lowering the anti-nutritional compounds in pseudo-cereals. Enhancing nutritional properties when using sprouted pseudo-cereals flours as a baking ingredient requires tailored formulation. Simplex centroid designs and response surface methodology has been applied in the present study to define the ideal proportions of ternary blends of sprouted kiwicha (SKF), cañihua (SCF) and wheat flours (WF) to simultaneously enhance the content in bioactive compounds (γ-aminobutyric acid, GABA, total soluble phenolic compounds and TSPC), as well as sensory (odor, color, taste and texture) and functional attributes (antioxidant activity, AA) while reducing phytic acid (PA) content of bread. The effect of gastric and intestinal digestion on bioactive compounds, AA, PA and starch hydrolysis was also evaluated. Mixture design allowed for the identification of optimal formulation (5% SKF, 23.1% SCF, 71.9% WF) that can be used to obtain breads with higher content of GABA, TSPC, AA, overall sensorial acceptability (scores > 7) and reduced PA content and glycemic index. Moreover, this study demonstrated that these nutritional and health benefits provided by the replacement of WF by sprouted pseudo-cereal flours remained upon digestion. The results of this study indicated that WF replacement with SKF and SCF is sensory acceptable and improved the nutritional quality of bread.

Nutrient composition of Chenopodium formosanum Koidz. bran: Fractionation and bioactivity of its soluble active polysaccharides.

Background: Chenopodium formosanum Koidz. Amaranthaceae-also known as Djulis or red quinoa (RQ)-is a cereal plant indigenous to Taiwan, known for its high nutrient value. However, its bran is considered a waste product and the nutrient value has never been analyzed. Methods: In this study, we examined the proximate composition of RQ bran, specifically its soluble polysaccharide fractions. Results: RQ bran exhibited high contents of protein (16.56%), ash (7.10%), carbohydrate (60.45%), total polyphenolics (1.85%), betaxanthin (9.91 mg/100 g of RQ bran), and indicaxanthin (7.27 mg/100 g of RQ bran). Specifically, it was rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs; 39.24%)-with an n-6/n-3 and PUFA/saturated fatty acid (SFA) ratio of 18.137 and 0.743, respectively. Four soluble polysaccharide fractions were also obtained: CF-1, CF-2, CF-3, and CF-4, with yields of 3.90%, 6.74%, 22.28%, and 0.06%, respectively, and molecular weights of 32.54, 24.93, 72.39, and 55.45 kDa, respectively. CF-1, CF-2, CF-3, and CF-4 had respectively 15.67%, 42.41%, 5.44%, and 14.52% peptide moiety content and 38.92%, 50.70%, 93.76%, and 19.80% carbohydrate moiety. In CF-2, the glucose content was 95.86 mol% and that of leucine was 16.23%, implicating the presence of a typical leucinoglucan. All four polysaccharide fractions lacked glutamic acid and hydroxyproline. The IC50 of CF-1, CF-2, and CF-3 was respectively 12.05, 3.98, and 14.5 mg/mL for DPPH free radical-scavenging ability; 5.77, 4.10, and 7.03 mg/mL for hydrogen peroxide-scavenging capability; 0.26, 0.05, and 0.19 mg/mL for O2 - free radical-scavenging capability; and 100.41, 28.12, and 29.73 mg/mL for Fe2+ chelation. Conclusion: Our results indicated that RQ bran has a large amount of nutrient compounds, and a cost-efficient process for their extraction is needed. Their biomedical application as nutraceuticals also warrants further investigation.

The Dual Nature of Amaranth-Functional Food and Potential Medicine.

The beneficial health-promoting properties of plants have been known to mankind for generations. Preparations from them are used to create recipes for dietary supplements, functional food, and medicinal products. Recently, amaranth has become an area of increasing scientific and industrial interest. This is due to its valuable biological properties, rich phytochemical composition, and wide pharmacological activity. Amaranth is a pseudo-cereal crop with a dual character, combining the features of food and health-promoting product. This paper briefly and concisely reviews the current information on the chemical composition of amaranth, the value of its supplementation, the status of amaranth as a food ingredient as well as its key biological and pharmacological activities. The beneficial biological properties of amaranth preparations described in this paper may be an incentive to conduct further in-depth scientific research in this field and also to promote the development of innovative technologies in the food and cosmetics industry with the use of this plant.

Assessment of brewing attitude of unmalted cereals and pseudocereals for gluten free beer production.

In this study, 40% of unmalted gluten free (GF) grains (sorghum, millet, buckwheat, quinoa and amaranth) was used in brewing process, in gelatinized and ungelatinized form, in order to produce GF beer and to extend current knowledge about their suitability as brewing adjuncts. Partial replacement of barley malt with GF grains led to a significant decrease of extract (°P) and alcohol (%v/v) content compared to control beer (p < 0.05), except for quinoa beer (QB). Results from Principal Component Analysis (PCA) highlighted a satisfactory classification of experimental beers according to the two different forms of GF grains (gelatinized and ungelatinized). However, beers brewed with ungelatinized grains (mainly sorghum and quinoa) showed acceptable technological and sensory properties, thus suggesting that the pre-gelatinization step could be bypassed with a view to more environmentally and economically sustainable time-saving process. In addition, all beer samples showed a gluten content higher than 20 ppm.

Gluten-Free Cereal Products and Beverages: A Review of Their Health Benefits in the Last Five Years.

In the past decades, food products and beverages made from gluten-free cereals were initially created for certain groups of people who experience gluten-related disorders such as wheat allergies, gluten ataxia, non-celiac gluten sensitivity, and the most well-known, celiac disease. Nowadays, the consumption of gluten-free products is not only restricted to targeted groups, but it has become a food trend for normal consumers, especially in countries such as the UK, the US, and some European countries, who believe that consuming a gluten-free product is a healthier choice compared to normal gluten-containing products. However, some research studies have disapproved of this claim because the currently available gluten-free products in the market are generally known to be lower in proteins, vitamins, and minerals and to contain higher lipids, sugar, and salt compared to their gluten-containing counterparts. The use of other gluten-free cereals such as sorghum, millet, and teff as well as pseudo cereals such as buckwheat and quinoa has gained significant interest in research in terms of their various potential health benefits. Hence, this review highlights the potential health benefits of some gluten-free cereals and pseudo cereals apart from corn and rice in the last decade. The potential health benefits of gluten-free products such as bread, pasta, crackers, and cookies and the health benefits of some other non-alcoholic beverages made from gluten-free cereals and pseudo cereals are reported.

Dietary Fibre from Whole Grains and Their Benefits on Metabolic Health.

The consumption of whole grain products is often related to beneficial effects on consumer health. Dietary fibre is an important component present in whole grains and is believed to be (at least partially) responsible for these health benefits. The dietary fibre composition of whole grains is very distinct over different grains. Whole grains of cereals and pseudo-cereals are rich in both soluble and insoluble functional dietary fibre that can be largely classified as e.g., cellulose, arabinoxylan, ß-glucan, xyloglucan and fructan. However, even though the health benefits associated with the consumption of dietary fibre are well known to scientists, producers and consumers, the consumption of dietary fibre and whole grains around the world is substantially lower than the recommended levels. This review will discuss the types of dietary fibre commonly found in cereals and pseudo-cereals, their nutritional significance and health benefits observed in animal and human studies.

Healthy and Resilient Cereals and Pseudo-Cereals for Marginal Agriculture: Molecular Advances for Improving Nutrient Bioavailability.

With the ever-increasing world population, an extra 1.5 billion mouths need to be fed by 2050 with continuously dwindling arable land. Hence, it is imperative that extra food come from the marginal lands that are expected to be unsuitable for growing major staple crops under the adverse climate change scenario. Crop diversity provides right alternatives for marginal environments to improve food, feed, and nutritional security. Well-adapted and climate-resilient crops will be the best fit for such a scenario to produce seed and biomass. The minor millets are known for their high nutritional profile and better resilience for several abiotic stresses that make them the suitable crops for arid and salt-affected soils and poor-quality waters. Finger millet (Eleucine coracana) and foxtail millet (Setaria italica), also considered as orphan crops, are highly tolerant grass crop species that grow well in marginal and degraded lands of Africa and Asia with better nutritional profile. Another category of grains, called pseudo-cereals, is considered as rich foods because of their protein quality and content, high mineral content, and healthy and balance food quality. Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa), amaranth (Amaranthus sp.), and buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) fall under this category. Nevertheless, both minor millets and pseudo-cereals are morphologically different, although similar for micronutrient bioavailability, and their grains are gluten-free. The cultivation of these millets can make dry lands productive and ensure future food as well as nutritional security. Although the natural nutrient profile of these crop plant species is remarkably good, little development has occurred in advances in molecular genetics and breeding efforts to improve the bioavailability of nutrients. Recent advances in NGS have enabled the genome and transcriptome sequencing of these millets and pseudo-cereals for the faster development of molecular markers and application in molecular breeding. Genomic information on finger millet (1,196 Mb with 85,243 genes); S. italica, a model small millet (well-annotated draft genome of 420 Mb with 38,801 protein-coding genes); amaranth (466 Mb genome and 23,059 protein-coding genes); buckwheat (genome size of 1.12 Gb with 35,816 annotated genes); and quinoa (genome size of 1.5 Gb containing 54,438 protein-coding genes) could pave the way for the genetic improvement of these grains. These genomic resources are an important first step toward genetic improvement of these crops. This review highlights the current advances and available resources on genomics to improve nutrient bioavailability in these five suitable crops for the sustained healthy livelihood.

Gluten-free flours from cereals, pseudocereals and legumes: Phenolic fingerprints and in vitro antioxidant properties.

The interest in gluten-free (GF) products increases together with the increase in gluten-sensitive people. However, GF foods might have decreased nutritional quality as compared to the gluten containing counterparts. In this work, an investigation of the phenolic and antioxidant profile in 18 GF flours belonging to legumes, cereals and pseudocereals was achieved. Significant differences could be observed across samples. Total phenolic content was highest in violet rice flours, whereas total anthocyanins were highest in violet, nerone, and black rice flours. FRAP and ORAC antioxidant activities were correlated to phenolic contents and found to be higher in violet rice flours. Metabolomics highlighted a wide diversity in phenolics, with flavonoids (197 compounds ascribable to anthocyanins, flavones, flavanones, isoflavonoids, flavonols, and flavanols), phenolic acids (74 compounds belonging to hydroxycinnamics, hydroxybenzoics, and hydroxyphenylacetics), and tyrosol derivatives the most represented. Finally, OPLS-DA multivariate statistics outlined flavonoids, furofurans and phenolic acids as the most discriminant phenolics.

Evaluation of phenolic profile and antioxidant capacity in gluten-free flours.

The characterization of phenolic fingerprints in common gluten-free flours is still scarce. Total phenolic and anthocyanin contents, antioxidant capacity and the entire phenolic profile were investigated for extracts from chickpea, sorghum, quinoa, black rice, lentil, amaranth, brown rice, oat and white rice flours, using soft wheat flour as a comparison. The highest phenolic content was found in black rice, followed by quinoa extracts (147.9 and 87.2mg gallic acid equivalents 100g-1, respectively). Consistently, antioxidant capacity was highest in black rice and quinoa flours (34mmol trolox equivalents 100g-1), while anthocyanins were highest in black rice flour. Data showed a high correlation between phenolic content and both reducing and scavenging activities, with Pearson's coefficient of 0.90 and 0.91, respectively. Although the entire phenolic profile was diverse and differed among flours, these represent a valuable source of health-promoting compounds, mainly belonging to flavonoids, phenolic acids and lignans.

The gluten-free diet: safety and nutritional quality.

The prevalence of celiac disease (CD), an autoimmune enteropathy, characterized by chronic inflammation of the intestinal mucosa, atrophy of intestinal villi and several clinical manifestations has increased in recent years. Subjects affected by CD cannot tolerate gluten protein, a mixture of storage proteins contained in several cereals (wheat, rye, barley and derivatives). Gluten free-diet remains the cornerstone treatment for celiac patients. Therefore the absence of gluten in natural and processed foods represents a key aspect of food safety of the gluten-free diet. A promising area is the use of minor or pseudo-cereals such as amaranth, buckwheat, quinoa, sorghum and teff. The paper is focused on the new definition of gluten-free products in food label, the nutritional properties of the gluten-free cereals and their use to prevent nutritional deficiencies of celiac subjects.