Observation-based global soil heterotrophic respiration indicates underestimated turnover and sequestration of soil carbon by terrestrial ecosystem models.

Soil heterotrophic respiration (Rh ) refers to the flux of CO2 released from soil to atmosphere as a result of organic matter decomposition by soil microbes and fauna. As one of the major fluxes in the global carbon cycle, large uncertainties still exist in the estimation of global Rh , which further limits our current understanding of carbon accumulation in soils. Here, we applied a Random Forest algorithm to create a global data set of soil Rh , by linking 761 field observations with both abiotic and biotic predictors. We estimated that global Rh was 48.8 ± 0.9 Pg C year-1 for 1982-2018, which was 16% less than the ensemble mean (58.6 ± 9.9 Pg C year-1 ) of 16 terrestrial ecosystem models. By integrating our observational Rh with independent soil carbon stock data sets, we obtained a global mean soil carbon turnover time of 38.3 ± 11 year. Using observation-based turnover times as a constraint, we found that terrestrial ecosystem models simulated faster carbon turnovers, leading to a 30% (74 Pg C) underestimation of terrestrial ecosystem carbon accumulation for the past century, which was especially pronounced at high latitudes. This underestimation is equivalent to 45% of the total carbon emissions (164 Pg C) caused by global land-use change at the same time. Our analyses highlight the need to constrain ecosystem models using observation-based and locally adapted Rh values to obtain reliable projections of the carbon sink capacity of terrestrial ecosystems.

Decadal trends in the ocean carbon sink.

Measurements show large decadal variability in the rate of [Formula: see text] accumulation in the atmosphere that is not driven by [Formula: see text] emissions. The decade of the 1990s experienced enhanced carbon accumulation in the atmosphere relative to emissions, while in the 2000s, the atmospheric growth rate slowed, even though emissions grew rapidly. These variations are driven by natural sources and sinks of [Formula: see text] due to the ocean and the terrestrial biosphere. In this study, we compare three independent methods for estimating oceanic [Formula: see text] uptake and find that the ocean carbon sink could be responsible for up to 40% of the observed decadal variability in atmospheric [Formula: see text] accumulation. Data-based estimates of the ocean carbon sink from [Formula: see text] mapping methods and decadal ocean inverse models generally agree on the magnitude and sign of decadal variability in the ocean [Formula: see text] sink at both global and regional scales. Simulations with ocean biogeochemical models confirm that climate variability drove the observed decadal trends in ocean [Formula: see text] uptake, but also demonstrate that the sensitivity of ocean [Formula: see text] uptake to climate variability may be too weak in models. Furthermore, all estimates point toward coherent decadal variability in the oceanic and terrestrial [Formula: see text] sinks, and this variability is not well-matched by current global vegetation models. Reconciling these differences will help to constrain the sensitivity of oceanic and terrestrial [Formula: see text] uptake to climate variability and lead to improved climate projections and decadal climate predictions.

Altered plant carbon partitioning enhanced forest ecosystem carbon storage after 25 years of nitrogen additions.

Decades of atmospheric nitrogen (N) deposition in the northeastern USA have enhanced this globally important forest carbon (C) sink by relieving N limitation. While many N fertilization experiments found increased forest C storage, the mechanisms driving this response at the ecosystem scale remain uncertain. Following the optimal allocation theory, augmented N availability may reduce belowground C investment by trees to roots and soil symbionts. To test this prediction and its implications on soil biogeochemistry, we constructed C and N budgets for a long-term, whole-watershed N fertilization study at the Fernow Experimental Forest, WV, USA. Nitrogen fertilization increased C storage by shifting C partitioning away from belowground components and towards aboveground woody biomass production. Fertilization also reduced the C cost of N acquisition, allowing for greater C sequestration in vegetation. Despite equal fine litter inputs, the C and N stocks and C : N ratio of the upper mineral soil were greater in the fertilized watershed, likely due to reduced decomposition of plant litter. By combining aboveground and belowground data at the watershed scale, this study demonstrates how plant C allocation responses to N additions may result in greater C storage in both vegetation and soil.

Interactive climate factors restrict future increases in spring productivity of temperate and boreal trees.

Climate warming is currently advancing spring leaf-out of temperate and boreal trees, enhancing net primary productivity (NPP) of forests. However, it remains unclear whether this trend will continue, preventing for accurate projections of ecosystem functioning and climate feedbacks. Several ecophysiological mechanisms have been proposed to regulate the timing of leaf emergence in response to changing environmental cues, but the relative importance of those mechanisms remains unclear. Here, we use 727,401 direct phenological observations of common European forest trees to examine the dominant controls on leaf-out. Using the emerging mechanisms, we forecast future trajectories of spring arrival and evaluate the consequences for forest carbon dynamics. By representing hypothesized relationships with autumn temperature, winter chilling, and the timing of spring onset, we accurately predicted reductions in the advance of leaf-out. There was a strong consensus between our empirical model and existing process-based models, revealing that the advance in leaf-out will not exceed 2 weeks over the rest of the century. We further estimate that, under a 'business-as-usual' climate scenario, earlier spring arrival will enhance NPP of temperate and boreal forests by ~0.2 Gt per year at the end of the century. In contrast, previous estimates based on a simple degree-day model range around 0.8 Gt. As such, the expected NPP is drastically reduced in our updated model relative to previous estimates-by a total of ~25 Gt over the rest of the century. These findings reveal important environmental constraints on the productivity of broad-leaved deciduous trees and highlight that shifting spring phenology is unlikely to slow the rate of warming by offsetting anthropogenic carbon emissions.

Terrestrial fluxes of carbon in GCP carbon budgets.

The Global Carbon Project (GCP) has published global carbon budgets annually since 2007 (Canadell et al. [2007], Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 104, 18866-18870; Raupach et al. [2007], Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 104, 10288-10293). There are many scientists involved, but the terrestrial fluxes that appear in the budgets are not well understood by ecologists and biogeochemists outside of that community. The purpose of this paper is to make the terrestrial fluxes of carbon in those budgets more accessible to a broader community. The GCP budget is composed of annual perturbations from pre-industrial conditions, driven by addition of carbon to the system from combustion of fossil fuels and by transfers of carbon from land to the atmosphere as a result of land use. The budget includes a term for each of the major fluxes of carbon (fossil fuels, oceans, land) as well as the rate of carbon accumulation in the atmosphere. Land is represented by two terms: one resulting from direct anthropogenic effects (Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry or land management) and one resulting from indirect anthropogenic (e.g., CO2 , climate change) and natural effects. Each of these two net terrestrial fluxes of carbon, in turn, is composed of opposing gross emissions and removals (e.g., deforestation and forest regrowth). Although the GCP budgets have focused on the two net terrestrial fluxes, they have paid little attention to the gross components, which are important for a number of reasons, including understanding the potential for land management to remove CO2 from the atmosphere and understanding the processes responsible for the sink for carbon on land. In contrast to the net fluxes of carbon, which are constrained by the global carbon budget, the gross fluxes are largely unconstrained, suggesting that there is more uncertainty than commonly believed about how terrestrial carbon emissions will respond to future fossil fuel emissions and a changing climate.

Have Synergies Between Nitrogen Deposition and Atmospheric CO2 Driven the Recent Enhancement of the Terrestrial Carbon Sink?

The terrestrial carbon sink has increased since the turn of this century at a time of increased fossil fuel burning, yet the mechanisms enhancing this sink are not fully understood. Here we assess the hypothesis that regional increases in nitrogen deposition since the early 2000s has alleviated nitrogen limitation and worked in tandem with enhanced CO2 fertilization to increase ecosystem productivity and carbon sequestration, providing a causal link between the parallel increases in emissions and the global land carbon sink. We use the Community Land Model (CLM4.5-BGC) to estimate the influence of changes in atmospheric CO2, nitrogen deposition, climate, and their interactions to changes in net primary production and net biome production. We focus on two periods, 1901-2016 and 1990-2016, to estimate changes in land carbon fluxes relative to historical and contemporary baselines, respectively. We find that over the historical period, nitrogen deposition (14%) and carbon-nitrogen synergy (14%) were significant contributors to the current terrestrial carbon sink, suggesting that long-term increases in nitrogen deposition led to a substantial increase in CO2 fertilization. However, relative to the contemporary baseline, changes in nitrogen deposition and carbon-nitrogen synergy had no substantial contribution to the 21st century increase in global carbon uptake. Nonetheless, we find that increased nitrogen deposition in East Asia since the early 1990s contributed 50% to the overall increase in net biome production over this region, highlighting the importance of carbon-nitrogen interactions. Therefore, potential large-scale changes in nitrogen deposition could have a significant impact on terrestrial carbon cycling and future climate.

Inside out: efflux of carbon dioxide from leaves represents more than leaf metabolism.

High concentrations of inorganic carbon in the xylem, produced from root, stem, and branch respiration, travel via the transpiration stream and eventually exit the plant through distant tissues as CO2. Unlike previous studies that focused on the efflux of CO2 from roots and woody tissues, we focus on efflux from leaves and the potential effect on leaf respiration measurements. We labeled transported inorganic carbon, spanning reported xylem concentrations, with 13C and then manipulated transpiration rates in the dark in order to vary the rates of inorganic carbon supply to cut leaves from Brassica napus and Populus deltoides. We used tunable diode laser absorbance spectroscopy to directly measure the rate of gross 13CO2 efflux, derived from inorganic carbon supplied from outside of the leaf, relative to gross 12CO2 efflux generated from leaf cells. These experiemnts showed that 13CO2 efflux was dependent upon the rate of inorganic carbon supply to the leaf and the rate of transpiration. Our data show that the gross leaf efflux of xylem-transported CO2 is likely small in the dark when rates of transpiration are low. However, gross leaf efflux of xylem-transported CO2 could approach half the rate of leaf respiration in the light when transpiration rates and branch inorganic carbon concentrations are high, irrespective of the grossly different petiole morphologies in our experiment.

Wood production response to climate change will depend critically on forest composition and structure.

Established forests currently function as a major carbon sink, sequestering as woody biomass about 26% of global fossil fuel emissions. Whether forests continue to act as a global sink will depend on many factors, including the response of aboveground wood production (AWP; MgC ha(-1 ) yr(-1) ) to climate change. Here, we explore how AWP in New Zealand's natural forests is likely to change. We start by statistically modelling the present-day growth of 97 199 individual trees within 1070 permanently marked inventory plots as a function of tree size, competitive neighbourhood and climate. We then use these growth models to identify the factors that most influence present-day AWP and to predict responses to medium-term climate change under different assumptions. We find that if the composition and structure of New Zealand's forests were to remain unchanged over the next 30 years, then AWP would increase by 6-23%, primarily as a result of physiological responses to warmer temperatures (with no appreciable effect of changing rainfall). However, if warmth-requiring trees were able to migrate into currently cooler areas and if denser canopies were able to form, then a different AWP response is likely: forests growing in the cool mountain environments would show a 30% increase in AWP, while those in the lowland would hardly respond (on average, -3% when mean annual temperature exceeds 8.0 °C). We conclude that response of wood production to anthropogenic climate change is not only dependent on the physiological responses of individual trees, but is highly contingent on whether forests adjust in composition and structure.

Unexpected response of terrestrial carbon sink to rural depopulation in China.

China is experiencing large-scale rural-urban migration and rapid urbanization, which have had significant impact on terrestrial carbon sink. However, the impact of rural-urban migration and its accompanying urban expansion on the carbon sink is unclear. Based on multisource remote sensing product data for 2000-2020, the soil microbial respiration equation, relative contribution rate, and threshold analysis, we explored the impact of rural depopulation on the carbon sink and its threshold. The results revealed that the proportion of the rural population in China decreased from 63.91 % in 2000 to 36.11 % in 2020. Human pressure decreased by 1.82% in rural depopulation areas, which promoted vegetation restoration in rural areas (+8.45 %) and increased the carbon sink capacity. The net primary productivity (NPP) and net ecosystem productivity (NEP) of the vegetation in the rural areas increased at rates of 2.95 g C m-2 yr-1 and 2.44 g C m-2 yr-1. Strong rural depopulation enhanced the carbon sequestration potential, and the NEP was 1.5 times higher in areas with sharp rural depopulation than in areas with mild rural depopulation. In addition, the rural depopulation was accompanied by urban expansion, and there was a positive correlation between the comprehensive urbanization level (CUL) and NEP in 75.29 % of urban areas. In the urban areas, the vegetation index increased by 88.42 %, and the urban green space partially compensated for the loss of carbon sink caused by urban expansion, with a growth rate of 4.96 g C m-2 yr-1. Changes in rural population have a nonlinear impact on the NEP. When the rural population exceeds 545.686 people/km2, an increase in the rural population will have a positive impact on the NEP. Our research shows that rural depopulation offers a potential opportunity to restore natural ecosystems and thus increase the carbon sequestration capacity.

Small reservoirs can enhance the terrestrial carbon sink of controlled basins in karst areas worldwide.

The concentration of Greenhouse Gas (GHG) in the atmosphere has sharply increased since the Industrial Revolution, leading to climate warming and severe environmental problems. It has become a consensus that GHG emissions of large reservoirs essentially constitute inland aquatic GHG emissions. However, questions remain regarding whether small karst reservoir (SKR) is only a substantial source of GHG emissions like large reservoirs, and how much GHG emission it can offset by affecting the terrestrial carbon sink (TCS) of its controlled basin. We selected two basins in the karst area of southwestern China, with built and planned SKRs, and quantitatively analysed the impact of the SKR on basin-scale water and carbon cycles during 2000-2020 using multi-source remote sensing data and the Google Earth Engine. Results showed that the associated increase in the TCS in the SKR-controlled basin can completely offset the GHG emissions and TCS losses caused by submerged land, resulting in a 21.48 % faster increase rate of TCS and a 12.20 % greater increase in TCS caused by human activities than in non-karst reservoir basin. Meanwhile, by intercepting both surface and groundwater runoff, the SKR-controlled basin showed a 329.55 % faster increase rate of available surface water resources than the non-karst reservoir basin, alleviating the problem of engineering water shortages and enhancing the drought resistance capacity. Moreover, in the three major karst areas worldwide, and especially in southwestern China, faster vegetation restoration and TCS increase exist in most SKR-controlled basins, and this increase is enhanced with increasing proximity to the water surface. This study revealed that SKR is more than a substantial source of GHG emissions; it can also effectively enhance the TCS and available surface water resources in controlled basin, which is of great significance for achieving carbon neutrality goals while maintaining the sustainability of water and carbon cycle in karst areas.

Carbon Source Reduction Postpones Autumn Leaf Senescence in a Widespread Deciduous Tree.

The growing-season length of temperate and boreal trees has a strong effect on the global carbon cycle. Yet, a poor understanding of the drivers of phenological processes, such as autumn leaf senescence in deciduous trees, limits our capacity to estimate growing-season lengths under climate change. While temperature has been shown to be an important driver of autumn leaf senescence, carbon source-sink dynamics have been proposed as a mechanism that could help explain variation of this important process. According to the carbon sink limitation hypothesis, senescence is regulated by the interplay between plant carbon source and sink dynamics, so that senescence occurs later upon low carbon inputs (source) and earlier upon low carbon demand (sink). Here, we manipulated carbon source-sink dynamics in birch saplings (Betula pendula) to test the relevance of carbon sink limitation for autumn leaf senescence and photosynthetic decline in a widespread deciduous tree. Specifically, we conducted a gradient of leaf and bud removal treatments and monitored the effects on autumnal declines in net photosynthesis and the timing of leaf senescence. In line with the carbon sink limitation hypothesis, we observed that leaf removal tended to increase total leaf-level autumn photosynthesis and delayed the timing of senescence. Conversely, we did not observe an effect of bud removal on either photosynthesis or senescence, which was likely caused by the fact that our bud removal treatment did not considerably affect the plant carbon sink. While we cannot fully rule out that the observed effect of leaf removal was influenced by possible treatment-level differences in leaf age or soil resource availability, our results provide support for the hypothesis of carbon sink limitation as a driver of growing-season length and move the scientific field closer to narrowing the uncertainty in climate change predictions.