The impact of threshold decision mechanisms of collective behavior on disease spread.

Humans are a hyper-social species, which greatly impacts the spread of infectious diseases. How do social dynamics impact epidemiology and what are the implications for public health policy? Here, we develop a model of disease transmission that incorporates social dynamics and a behavior that reduces the spread of disease, a voluntary nonpharmaceutical intervention (NPI). We use a "tipping-point" dynamic, previously used in the sociological literature, where individuals adopt a behavior given a sufficient prevalence of the behavior in the population. The thresholds at which individuals adopt the NPI behavior are modulated by the perceived risk of infection, i.e., the disease prevalence and transmission rate, costs to adopt the NPI behavior, and the behavior of others. Social conformity creates a type of "stickiness" whereby individuals are resistant to changing their behavior due to the population's inertia. In this model, we observe a nonmonotonicity in the attack rate as a function of various biological and social parameters such as the transmission rate, efficacy of the NPI, costs of the NPI, weight of social consequences of shirking the social norm, and the degree of heterogeneity in the population. We also observe that the attack rate can be highly sensitive to these parameters due to abrupt shifts in the collective behavior of the population. These results highlight the complex interplay between the dynamics of epidemics and norm-driven collective behaviors.

Distinct neurocomputational mechanisms support informational and socially normative conformity.

A change of mind in response to social influence could be driven by informational conformity to increase accuracy, or by normative conformity to comply with social norms such as reciprocity. Disentangling the behavioural, cognitive, and neurobiological underpinnings of informational and normative conformity have proven elusive. Here, participants underwent fMRI while performing a perceptual task that involved both advice-taking and advice-giving to human and computer partners. The concurrent inclusion of 2 different social roles and 2 different social partners revealed distinct behavioural and neural markers for informational and normative conformity. Dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) BOLD response tracked informational conformity towards both human and computer but tracked normative conformity only when interacting with humans. A network of brain areas (dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC) and temporoparietal junction (TPJ)) that tracked normative conformity increased their functional coupling with the dACC when interacting with humans. These findings enable differentiating the neural mechanisms by which different types of conformity shape social changes of mind.

Adaptive adjustment after conflict with group opinion: evidence from neural electrophysiology.

Individuals inherently seek social consensus when making decisions or judgments. Previous studies have consistently indicated that dissenting group opinions are perceived as social conflict that demands attitude adjustment. However, the neurocognitive processes of attitude adjustment are unclear. In this electrophysiological study, participants were recruited to perform a face attractiveness judgment task. After forming their own judgment of a face, participants were informed of a purported group judgment (either consistent or inconsistent with their judgment), and then, critically, the same face was presented again. The neural responses to the second presented faces were measured. The second presented faces evoked a larger late positive potential after conflict with group opinions than those that did not conflict, suggesting that more motivated attention was allocated to stimulus. Moreover, faces elicited greater midfrontal theta (4-7 Hz) power after conflict with group opinions than after consistency with group opinions, suggesting that cognitive control was initiated to support attitude adjustment. Furthermore, the mixed-effects model revealed that single-trial theta power predicted behavioral change in the Conflict condition, but not in the No-Conflict condition. These findings provide novel insights into the neurocognitive processes underlying attitude adjustment, which is crucial to behavioral change during conformity.

Why adolescents conform to high-status peers: Associations among conformity, identity alignment, and self-esteem.

This study examined whether conformity to high- but not low-status e-confederates was associated with increases in identification with popular peers and subsequent increases in self-esteem. A sample of 250 adolescents (55.1% male; Mage = 12.70 years; 40.3% White, 28.2% Black, 23.4% Hispanic/Latino, and 7.7% multiracial/other) participated in a well-established experimental chat room paradigm where they were exposed to norms communicated by high- and low-status e-confederates. Results revealed that for boys in the high-status condition only, but not girls, the positive relation between conformity and self-esteem was mediated by greater response alignment with popular peers. These findings bolster prior research by suggesting that conformity to popular peers may be partly motivated by drives for self-esteem and alignment with a valued reference group.

An examination of cannabis use motives among couples with intimate partner violence and alcohol use disorder.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Cannabis use is highly prevalent among individuals with a history of intimate partner violence (IPV) and among people who drink alcohol. Motives for cannabis use are important correlates of consumption and problem severity. However, no research has examined cannabis use motives among couples with IPV. The goals of the study were to examine (1) the associations between a person and their partner's cannabis use motives; and (2) examine the extent to which each partners' cannabis use motives are related to their own and their partner's cannabis consumption. METHODS: Participants were 100 couples (n = 92 different-sex couples, n = 8 same-sex couples) who reported physical IPV in their current relationship. RESULTS: Certain cannabis motives (coping and conformity) and behaviors (cannabis use frequency, quantity and drug-related problems) were positively associated between intimate partners. One's own higher coping motives were associated with greater frequency of cannabis consumption; higher conformity motives were associated with less quantity of consumption; higher social motives were associated with greater quantity of cannabis consumption; and one's partner's social motives were associated with less quantity of cannabis consumption. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that couples report similar motives for cannabis use, and that one's own and their partner's motives may differentially influence frequency and quantity of use. SCIENTIFIC SIGNIFICANCE: This study provides novel information on congruency between cannabis use motives and behaviors between intimate partners, as well as how both an individual and their partner's motives for use can influence an individual's cannabis use behaviors.

On randomly changing conformity bias in cultural transmission.

Humans and nonhuman animals display conformist as well as anticonformist biases in cultural transmission. Whereas many previous mathematical models have incorporated constant conformity coefficients, empirical research suggests that the extent of (anti)conformity in populations can change over time. We incorporate stochastic time-varying conformity coefficients into a widely used conformity model, which assumes a fixed number n of "role models" sampled by each individual. We also allow the number of role models to vary over time ([Formula: see text]). Under anticonformity, nonconvergence can occur in deterministic and stochastic models with different parameter values. Even if strong anticonformity may occur, if conformity or random copying (i.e., neither conformity nor anticonformity) is expected, there is convergence to one of the three equilibria seen in previous deterministic models of conformity. Moreover, this result is robust to stochastic variation in [Formula: see text] However, dynamic properties of these equilibria may be different from those in deterministic models. For example, with random conformity coefficients, all equilibria can be stochastically locally stable simultaneously. Finally, we study the effect of randomly changing weak selection. Allowing the level of conformity, the number of role models, and selection to vary stochastically may produce a more realistic representation of the wide range of group-level properties that can emerge under (anti)conformist biases. This promises to make interpretation of the effect of conformity on differences between populations, for example those connected by migration, rather difficult. Future research incorporating finite population sizes and migration would contribute added realism to these models.

Predicting social tipping and norm change in controlled experiments.

The ability to predict when societies will replace one social norm for another can have significant implications for welfare, especially when norms are detrimental. A popular theory poses that the pressure to conform to social norms creates tipping thresholds which, once passed, propel societies toward an alternative state. Predicting when societies will reach a tipping threshold, however, has been a major challenge because of the lack of experimental data for evaluating competing models. We present evidence from a large-scale laboratory experiment designed to test the theoretical predictions of a threshold model for social tipping and norm change. In our setting, societal preferences change gradually, forcing individuals to weigh the benefit from deviating from the norm against the cost from not conforming to the behavior of others. We show that the model correctly predicts in 96% of instances when a society will succeed or fail to abandon a detrimental norm. Strikingly, we observe widespread persistence of detrimental norms even when individuals determine the cost for nonconformity themselves as they set the latter too high. Interventions that facilitate a common understanding of the benefits from change help most societies abandon detrimental norms. We also show that instigators of change tend to be more risk tolerant and to dislike conformity more. Our findings demonstrate the value of threshold models for understanding social tipping in a broad range of social settings and for designing policies to promote welfare.

Overcoming COVID-19 vaccination resistance when alternative policies affect the dynamics of conformism, social norms, and crowding out.

What is an effective vaccination policy to end the COVID-19 pandemic? We address this question in a model of the dynamics of policy effectiveness drawing upon the results of a large panel survey implemented in Germany during the first and second waves of the pandemic. We observe increased opposition to vaccinations were they to be legally required. In contrast, for voluntary vaccinations, there was higher and undiminished support. We find that public distrust undermines vaccine acceptance, and is associated with a belief that the vaccine is ineffective and, if enforced, compromises individual freedom. We model how the willingness to be vaccinated may vary over time in response to the fraction of the population already vaccinated and whether vaccination has occurred voluntarily or not. A negative effect of enforcement on vaccine acceptance (of the magnitude observed in our panel or even considerably smaller) could result in a large increase in the numbers that would have to be vaccinated unwillingly in order to reach a herd-immunity target. Costly errors may be avoided if policy makers understand that citizens' preferences are not fixed but will be affected both by the crowding-out effect of enforcement and by conformism. Our findings have broad policy applicability beyond COVID-19 to cases in which voluntary citizen compliance is essential because state capacities are limited and because effectiveness may depend on the ways that the policies themselves alter citizens' beliefs and preferences.

Associations between gendered racism, racial identity, and nicotine use among Asian American men.

OBJECTIVES: The present study utilized an intersectional framework to examine if two forms of gendered racism, psychological emasculation and messages about Asian American men being undesirable partners, were associated with Asian American men's nicotine use. We also examined the potential mediating roles of two racial identity statuses, racial conformity and racial immersion. METHODS: A sample of 356 Asian American men living in the United States of America (USA) completed a cross-sectional survey via Qualtrics containing measures assessing the aforementioned constructs of interest. The primary analysis examined separate parallel mediation models, situating psychological emasculation and undesirable partner as separate independent variables, racial conformity and racial immersion as parallel mediators, nicotine use as the outcome, and age and employment as covariates. RESULTS: In separate parallel mediation models, the links between psychological emasculation and undesirable partner on one hand, and nicotine use on the other, were completely mediated only by racial conformity, and not significantly mediated by racial immersion. Specifically, greater endorsement of gendered racism was associated with greater conformity with (and internalization of) these gendered racist beliefs, which in turn were associated with greater nicotine use. CONCLUSION: Researchers and practitioners may consider racial conformity as an interventional target to ameliorate Asian American men's nicotine use. Future studies should continue to examine other culturally relevant and/or potentially protective constructs (e.g., on the basis of gender, race, and its intersection) that may mitigate Asian American men's nicotine use.

Individualism, collectivism and conformity in nine countries: Relations with parenting and child adjustment.

This study investigated how individualism, collectivism and conformity are associated with parenting and child adjustment in 1297 families with 10-year-old children from 13 cultural groups in nine countries. With multilevel models disaggregating between- and within-culture effects, we examined between- and within-culture associations between maternal and paternal cultural values, parenting dimensions and children's adjustment. Mothers from cultures endorsing higher collectivism and fathers from cultures endorsing lower individualism engage more frequently in warm parenting behaviours. Mothers and fathers with higher-than-average collectivism in their culture reported higher parent warmth and expectations for children's family obligations. Mothers with higher-than-average collectivism in their cultures more frequently reported warm parenting and fewer externalising problems in children, whereas mothers with higher-than-average individualism in their culture reported more child adjustment problems. Mothers with higher-than-average conformity values in their culture reported more father-displays of warmth and greater mother-reported expectations for children's family obligations. Fathers with higher-than-average individualism in their culture reported setting more rules and soliciting more knowledge about their children's whereabouts. Fathers who endorsed higher-than-average conformity in their culture displayed more warmth and expectations for children's family obligations and granted them more autonomy. Being connected to an interdependent, cohesive group appears to relate to parenting and children's adjustment.

Cultural values, parenting and child adjustment in Italy.

The present study examined the association of mothers' and fathers' individualism, collectivism and conformity values with parenting behaviours and child adjustment during middle childhood in an Italian sample. Children (n = 194; 95 from Naples and 99 from Rome; 49% girls) were 10.93 years old (SD = .61) at the time of data collection. Their mothers (n = 194) and fathers (n = 152) also participated. Mother and father reports were collected about parental individualism and collectivism, conformity values, warmth, family obligations expectations and their children's internalising and externalising problems. Child reports were collected about their parents' warmth, psychological control, rules/limit-setting, family obligations expectations and their own internalising and externalising behaviours. Multiple regressions predicted each of the parenting and child adjustment variables from the value variables, controlling for child gender and parent education. Results showed that maternal collectivism was associated with high psychological control, parental collectivism was associated with high expectations regarding children's family obligations and fathers' conformity values were associated with more child internalising behaviours. Overall, the present study shed light on how parents' cultural values are related to some parenting practices and children's internalising problems in Italy.

Cultural values, parenting, and child adjustment in China.

To examine whether parents' cultural values are related to parenting practices and children's behavioural adjustment, mothers, fathers and children (N = 218) from two cities in China (Jinan and Shanghai) were interviewed when children were, on average, 10 years old. Mothers and fathers reported their endorsement of cultural values (individualism, collectivism, conformity), which were used to separately predict warmth and family obligation expectations reported by each parent, as well as children's report of parental psychological control, rule setting, knowledge solicitation and perceived family obligation expectations. Cross-informant (parents and child) composites of internalising and externalising behaviours were also obtained. The results showed that maternal individualism positively predicted parents' knowledge solicitation. Parental collectivism positively predicted their own warmth and family obligation expectations. Mothers' conformity positively predicted mothers' family obligation expectations, paternal warmth and children's perception of family obligation, whereas fathers' conformity only positively predicted fathers' family obligation expectations. These effects were largely consistent across regional subsamples, although mothers in Jinan were more collectivistic than mothers in Shanghai, and parents in Shanghai adopted less psychological control and more knowledge solicitation in parenting.

Cultural values, parenting and child adjustment in Kenya.

Children's, mothers' and fathers' reports were used to assess whether mothers' and fathers' individualism, collectivism and conformity values are significantly related to parenting behaviours and child adjustment during middle childhood. A sample of 95 children, 95 mothers and 94 fathers was recruited from Kisumu, Kenya. Our results indicated that controlling for child gender and parents' education, mothers' and fathers' higher collectivism values were associated with higher expectations regarding children's family obligations. Children of mothers who were more individualistic perceived that less was required of them in terms of family obligations. Mothers' conformity values were associated with more maternal and paternal warmth, and higher maternal expectations regarding children's family obligations, controlling for child gender and mothers' education. Mothers' education was significantly associated with more maternal and paternal warmth, more parental knowledge solicitation and higher paternal expectations regarding children's family obligations. Fathers' and mothers' individualism was associated with lower expectations regarding children's family obligations. Fathers' individualism was positively correlated with knowledge solicitation and more rules/limit-setting. Fathers' higher conformity values were correlated with more maternal warmth, more paternal warmth, more knowledge solicitation and mothers' and fathers' higher expectations regarding children's family obligations.

Cultural values, parenting and child adjustment in Thailand.

The purpose of this study was to understand the associations of Thai parents' cultural values (i.e., individualism, collectivism and conformity) with parenting behaviour (i.e., warmth, autonomy granting, rules/limit-setting, knowledge solicitation and expectations regarding children's family obligations) and children's adjustment (i.e., internalising and externalising problems). These data were collected via child, mother and father reports when the children were 10 years old, on average. Mothers' individualism was correlated with more parental autonomy granting. Fathers' individualism was correlated with higher maternal expectations regarding children's family obligations. Parents' higher collectivism was correlated with more with parental warmth. Mothers' higher collectivism was also correlated with more parental knowledge solicitation, and fathers' higher collectivism was also associated with mothers' and fathers' higher expectations regarding children's family obligations. Fathers' higher conformity values were correlated with more parental autonomy granting and with fewer child internalising and externalising behaviours. However, after controlling for child gender, parent education and the other cultural values, mothers' and fathers' collectivism remained the only significant cultural value predicting parenting behaviours. Results advance understanding of relations between cultural values of Thai mothers and fathers and their parenting behaviours and children's adjustment.

Cultural values, parenting, and child adjustment in the United States.

We examined whether cultural values, conformity and parenting behaviours were related to child adjustment in middle childhood in the United States. White, Black and Latino mothers (n = 273), fathers (n = 182) and their children (n = 272) reported on parental individualism and collectivism, conformity values, parental warmth, monitoring, family obligation expectations, and child internalising and externalising behaviours. Mean differences, bivariate correlations and multiple regression analyses were performed on variables of interest. Collectivism in mothers and fathers was associated with family obligation expectations and parental warmth. Fathers with higher conformity values had higher expectations of children's family obligations. Child internalising and externalising behaviours were greater when Latino families subscribed to individualistic values. These results are discussed in the context of cultural values, protective and promotive factors of behaviour, and race/ethnicity in the United States.

Conformity and anti-conformity in a finite population.

Conformist and anti-conformist cultural transmission have been studied both empirically, in several species, and theoretically, with population genetic models. Building upon standard, infinite-population models (IPMs) of conformity, we introduce finite-population models (FPMs) and study them via simulation and a diffusion approximation. In previous IPMs of conformity, offspring observe the variants of n adult role models, where n is often three. Numerical simulations show that while the short-term behavior of the FPM with n=3 role models is well approximated by the IPM, stable polymorphic equilibria of the IPM become effective equilibria of the FPM at which the variation persists prior to fixation or loss, and which produce plateaus in curves for fixation probabilities and expected times to absorption. In the FPM with n=5 role models, the population may switch between two effective equilibria, which is not possible in the IPM, or may cycle between frequencies that are not effective equilibria, which is possible in the IPM. In all observed cases of 'equilibrium switching' and 'cycling' in the FPM, model parameters exceed O(1/N), required for the diffusion approximation, resulting in an over-estimation of the actual times to absorption. However, in those cases with n=5 role models that have one effective equilibrium and stable fixation states, even if conformity coefficients exceed O(1/N), the diffusion approximation matches closely the numerical simulations of the FPM. This suggests that the robustness of the diffusion approximation depends not only on the magnitudes of coefficients, but also on the qualitative behavior of the conformity model.

Inferential power in identifying frequency-dependent social learning strengthened by increasing behavioural options.

Two-option choice experimental designs are the most commonly employed framework for identifying evidence of social learning or social learning strategies in captive and wild populations. In nature, however, animals often choose from more than two behaviours, and multiple innovations may arise simultaneously. Studies of animal social learning are often constrained by small sample sizes, which limit researchers' ability to convincingly identify the proposed social learning strategy responsible for behavioural choice. In this study, I examine whether expanding behavioural options from k = 2 to k > 2 and increasing sample size affects inferential power in identifying social learning strategies. I focus on three frequency-dependent learning strategies: conformist transmission, unbiased transmission and anti-conformist transmission. I simulate 100 datasets for 72 parameter combinations, yielding 7200 simulations. I evaluate number of options (k = 2, 3, 4, 5), population size (n = 5, 10, 25, 50, 100, 250) and the logarithmic strength of frequency dependence (log(f) = log(1∕3), log(1), log(3)). I then fit a Bayesian social learning model to simulated data to evaluate the percent of the posterior consistent with type of frequency dependence, posterior standard deviations, highest posterior density intervals and posterior medians relative to the true simulated value of log(f). I show that increasing the number of options an animal can choose from increases the accuracy and certainty of identifying the type and magnitude of frequency-dependent social learning. These effects are particularly pronounced at small to intermediate sample sizes, which are common in empirical studies of animal social learning. These findings suggest that knowing what an animal did not choose is equally important as knowing what an animal did choose when identifying social learning strategies. By strategically increasing the number of behaviours from which an animal can choose, researchers can increase inferential power in identifying social learning strategies without increasing sample size, that is, adding additional animals or collecting more data.

Rapid Onset Gender Dysphoria: Parent Reports on 1655 Possible Cases.

During the past decade there has been a dramatic increase in adolescents and young adults (AYA) complaining of gender dysphoria. One influential if controversial explanation is that the increase reflects a socially contagious syndrome: Rapid Onset Gender Dysphoria (ROGD). We report results from a survey of parents who contacted the website ParentsofROGDKids.com because they believed their AYA children had ROGD. Results focused on 1655 AYA children whose gender dysphoria reportedly began between ages 11 and 21 years, inclusive. These youths were disproportionately (75%) natal female. Natal males had later onset (by 1.9 years) than females, and they were much less likely to have taken steps toward social gender transition (65.7% for females versus 28.6% for males). Pre-existing mental health issues were common, and youths with these issues were more likely than those without them to have socially and medically transitioned. Parents reported that they had often felt pressured by clinicians to affirm their AYA child's new gender and support their transition. According to the parents, AYA children's mental health deteriorated considerably after social transition. We discuss potential biases of survey responses from this sample and conclude that there is presently no reason to believe that reports of parents who support gender transition are more accurate than those who oppose transition. To resolve controversies regarding ROGD, it is desirable that future research includes data provided by both pro- and anti-transition parents, as well as their gender dysphoric AYA children.

The relationship between women's breastfeeding empowerment and conformity to feminine norms.

BACKGROUND: Women empowerment is effective in successful breastfeeding. Hence,identifying the relationship between psychosocial factors, such as acceptance of feminine norms, and empowerment can be beneficial in designing interventions.. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the relationship between breastfeeding empowerment and conformity to feminine norms. METHODS: This cross-sectional study was conducted on 288 primiparous mothers in the postpartum period using validated questionnaires of conformity to gender norms and breastfeeding empowerment in the following domains: "sufficient knowledge and skills for breastfeeding," "a sense of breastfeeding competence," "conscious belief in the value of breastfeeding," "overcoming breastfeeding problems," "negotiation and obtaining family support" and "self-efficacy in breastfeeding" which were completed through the self-report method. Data were analyzed using the multivariate linear regression test. RESULTS: The mean score of 'conformity to feminine norms' and 'breastfeeding empowerment' were 142.39 and 144.14, respectively. The score of breastfeeding empowerment was positively related to conformity to feminine norms (p = 0.003). Among the dimensions of breastfeeding empowerment, 'mothers' adequate knowledge and skills for breastfeeding' (p = 0.001), 'belief in the value of breastfeeding' (p = 0.008), and 'negotiation and obtaining family support' (p = 0.01) were positively related to conformity to feminine norms. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicate a positive relationship between the level of conformity to feminine norms and breastfeeding empowerment. Accordingly, it is recommended that supporting breastfeeding as a valuable role of women be considered in programs designed to improve breastfeeding empowerment.

Cultural evolution of conformity and anticonformity.

Conformist bias occurs when the probability of adopting a more common cultural variant in a population exceeds its frequency, and anticonformist bias occurs when the reverse is true. Conformist and anticonformist bias have been widely documented in humans, and conformist bias has also been observed in many nonhuman animals. Boyd and Richerson used models of conformist and anticonformist bias to explain the evolution of large-scale cooperation, and subsequent research has extended these models. We revisit Boyd and Richerson's original analysis and show that, with conformity based on more than three role models, the evolutionary dynamics can be more complex than previously assumed. For example, we show the presence of stable cycles and chaos under strong anticonformity and the presence of new equilibria when both conformity and anticonformity act at different variant frequencies, with and without selection. We also investigate the case of population subdivision with migration and find that the common claim that conformity can maintain between-group differences is not always true. Therefore, the effect of conformity on the evolution of cooperation by group selection may be more complicated than previously stated. Finally, using Feldman and Liberman's modifier approach, we investigate the conditions under which a rare modifier of the extent of conformity or the number of role models can invade a population. Understanding the dynamics of conformist- and anticonformist-biased transmission may have implications for research on human and nonhuman animal behavior, the evolution of cooperation, and frequency-dependent transmission in general.