Observational vs coaching feedback on non-dominant whole-body motor skill performance - application to technique training.

We studied the effect of peer- and self-observational feedback versus coaching feedback during technique training on performance in competitive adolescent cross-country skiers. Fifty-four skiers (14.3 ± 0.6 years) were divided into a control group and three intervention groups (dyad practice, video, or coaching feedback), which practiced in the asymmetrical uphill sub-technique G2 on one side (non-dominant side), but not the other (dominant side) for 6 × 30 min over a 5 weeks period, on roller skis outdoors. High-speed performance and skiing economy were assessed on a roller ski treadmill before and after the intervention, and a questionnaire was answered post-intervention. The video feedback (p = .025, d = .65) and coaching feedback (p = .007, d = .89) groups improved high-speed performance during the intervention and an ANCOVA showed a tendency for different change scores between interventions (F3,49  = 2.5, p = .068, η p 2  = .134), with a difference between the coaching feedback and dyad practice (p = .05). No change was seen in skiing economy in any group. Coaching feedback ranked higher on enjoyment compared with dyad practice (p < .001) and led to higher self-perception of improved technique compared with the control group (p = .038). Overall, feedback from a competent coach seems better than observation for improving performance in young athletes, although self-observation through video with attentional cues seems a promising tool for increasing individual feedback when coaching large groups.

Differences in pacing pattern and sub-technique selection between young and adult competitive cross-country skiers.

The present study describes differences in pacing patterns and sub-technique selection in young compared to adult competitive cross-country skiers. Eleven young male skiers (YOS) (14.4 ± 0.5 years, V ˙ O2peak 63.9 ± 2.8 mL∙kg-1 ∙min-1 ) and eight adult male skiers (ADS) (22.6 ± 4.3 years, V ˙ O2peak 77.4 ± 4.4 mL∙kg-1 ∙min-1 ) performed a free technique rollerski time trial (TT) over a distance of 4.3 km (YOS) and 13.1 km (ADS) to simulate normal racing distances. A GNSS/IMU system was used to track position, speed, and classify sub-techniques. Skiing economy and V ˙ O2peak were measured on an additional day to calculate the relative oxygen demand ( V ˙ O2dem ) in 13 segments of the TT. YOS were slower than ADS in all types of terrain (mean speed difference of 13%), with differences for uphills of 19%, undulating terrain of 11% and downhills of 8% (all P < .05). The mean relative V ˙ O2dem tended to be higher for YOS compared to ADS (120% vs 112% of V ˙ O2peak , P = .09), and the difference was more pronounced in the initial four segments of the race (130% vs 110% of V ˙ O2peak , P < .01). YOS used more of the sub-technique Gear 2 (23 ± 7 vs 14 ± 4%), less Gear 3 (36 ± 7 vs 45 ± 5%), and had more frequent transitions between sub-techniques (18 ± 2 vs 15 ± 3 km-1 ) (all P < .05) than ADS. Over an age-related distance, young skiers tend to exhibit higher mean exercise intensity than adult elite skiers, with a more pronounced positive pacing pattern. Differences in physical ability affect speed and sub-technique selections, implying a need for differentiating technical training for different ages and levels.

More than just another bib: group dynamics in an elite Nordic ski team.

The social environment within individual sport teams can have a significant influence on the success, development, and well-being of athletes. We explored elite individual sport athletes' group experiences through the lens of social identity theorising. Participants were six members (4 male, 2 female, Mage = 21.5 years) of a National Development Nordic Ski team. At two time points in the competitive season, we used Social Identity Mapping (Bentley et al., 2020) in combination with semi-structured interviews to explore athletes' experiences as a member of the ski team. Social Identity Mapping provided a visual representation of each participant's social identities and was used to facilitate athletes' views of their group experiences in the semi-structured interviews. Interview data were thematically analysed to explicate participants' perceptions of social identity and cohesion, and their perceived relevance to success and development in elite individual sport. Major themes included social group memberships and identities, the presence of subgroups, the ebb and flow of cohesion and conflict, and teammate and coach influence on the group. On this basis, we argue that social identity mapping can be a valuable resource for athletes and coaches seeking to create a positive and cohesive team environment within an elite individual sport team.

Constructing a Talent Identification Index System and Evaluation Model for Cross-Country Skiers.

A talent identification index system for male and female cross-country skiers in four age groups (11-12 years old, 13-14 years old, 15-16 years old, and 17-18 years old) was established. The system comprises five body shape indexes ( i =5): Leg-to-Body Ratio (LBR), body fat percentage, maturity status, spreaded brachia index, and upper extremity length. The physiological function indexes ( i =2) are VO2max and haemoglobin mass (Hb). The psychological indexes ( i =5) cover reaction time, perception speed, a quality-of-will scale, an attention test, and operational thinking. The physical fitness indexes ( i =11) comprise upper limb explosiveness, vertical jump, 3000-metre run, orthostatic forward flexion, closed-eyes single-leg stand, standing long jump, 20-metre sprint, pull-ups (males), flexed arm hang (females), hexagon jump, and a Functional Movement Screen (FMS) test. The athletic performance indexes ( i =3) comprise on-snow time trials for 1.2 km, 5 km, and 10 km. The talent identification evaluation model was created using automated evaluation software. The talent identification index system and evaluation standard table for cross-country skiers passed the P60 shortlist and P90 elite boundaries established using the percentile method. Thus, the results of this test profile verify that the evaluative model is objectively effective.

Nationality and sociocultural factors influence athlete development and sport outcomes: Perspectives from United States and Austrian youth alpine ski racing.

Geographical regions possess distinct sporting cultures that can influence athletic development from a young age. The United States (US) and Austria both produce elite alpine ski racers, yet have distinct sport structures (i.e., funding, skiing prominence). In this exploratory study, we investigated sport outcomes and psychological profiles in adolescent alpine ski racers attending skill development academies in the US (N= 169) and Austria (N= 209). Sport participation and psychological questionnaires (mental toughness, perfectionism, grit, coping, burnout) were administered to athletes. In Austria, athletes participated in fewer extracurricular sports, began competing and training younger, and accumulated less practice hours than athletes in the US. Athletes in the US reported greater burnout than athletes in Austria. Finally, in the US, women accumulated more practice hours and experienced more parental pressure than men, while men accumulated more practice hours in Austria. Austria's skiing-centric sport culture may encourage athletes to fully immerse into the sport, contributing to positive psychological outcomes. Reduced sport opportunities in the US beyond educational institutions may pressure athletes to practice more to ensure continued competitive skiing. Stressors for sport participation will be unique to gender in each country though, given their implicit gender stigmas for sport participation.

Does Age Matter? A Qualitative Comparison of Motives and Aspects of Risk in Adolescent and Adult Freeriders.

Recent research has shown multiple motives for high-risk sport participation derived from research on adult participants. The aim of this study was to provide insights into motives and risk-related aspects in adolescent high-risk sport participants and to compare those findings with adults performing the same activity. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 24 adolescent (14-20 years) freeriders (skiers/snowboarders who ski outside the protected areas of a ski resort) and 24 adult freeriders (26-41 years). A content analyses was done using MAXQDA software. Both cohorts reported the motives Challenge (adolescents: 92%, adults: 88%), Freedom/Pleasure (adolescents: 88%, adults: 75%), Friends (adolescents: 88%, adults: 79%) and Balance (adolescents: 63%, adults: 63%). However, the description of friends differed between adults and adolescents. Whereas adolescents mostly referred to a community and shared interests, adults described the importance of trust and the development of deep friendships through the activity more often. Nature was a major motive in adults (83%) but not in adolescents (29%). Most of the adults have already experienced a major accident or close call (n = 19; 79%), contrary to adolescents (n = 7; 29%). Adolescents learned about the risks in freeriding primarily through their families (n = 10) and the ski club (n = 9). Some adults reported to have realized the risks involved in freeriding after starting with the activity due to experienced negative outcomes. Both cohorts were largely motivated by the same motives. As the new generation of freeriders seems to receive more instructions about risk reduction, it might be interesting to see if this educational approach results into less accidents or close calls in this group.

Relations Between Self-Reported and Linguistic Monitoring Assessments of Affective Experience in an Extreme Environment.

INTRODUCTION: Approaches for monitoring psychosocial health in challenging environments are needed to maintain the performance and safety of personnel. The purpose of the present research was to examine the relationship between 2 candidate methods (self-reported and linguistics) for monitoring affective experience during extreme environment activities. METHODS: A single-subject repeated-measures design was used in the present work. The participant was a 46-year-old individual scheduled to complete a self-supported ski expedition across Arctic Greenland. The expedition lasted 28 days, and conditions included severe cold, low stimulation, whiteouts, limited habitability, and threats to life and limb. During the expedition, the participant completed a daily self-report log including assessment of psychological health (perceptions of control and affect) and a video diary (emotion). Video diary entries were subjected to linguistic inquiry and word count analyses before the links between self-report and linguistic data across the expedition period were tested. RESULTS: Similarities in the pattern of self-reported and linguistic assessments emerged across the expedition period. A number of predictable correlations were identified between self-reported and linguistic assessments of affective/emotional experience. Overall, there was better agreement between self-reports and linguistic analytics for indicators of negative affect/emotion. CONCLUSIONS: Future research should build on this initial study to further test the links between self-reported affect and emotional states monitored via linguistics. This could help develop methods for monitoring psychological health in extreme environments and support organizational decision making.

The Impact of Priming on Speed Reduction on a Ski Slope.

We tested a field-adapted priming procedure (a technique used to subtly activate mental representations and guide behavior) on a ski slope, with the goal of reducing risk behavior in winter sports. At cableway stations, skiers were initially exposed eight times to a prevention poster displaying a logo and a "slow down" message. The "slow down" concept was activated on the ski slope by exposing skiers (or not) 10 times to the logo featured on the poster. We used a radar device to measure the skiers' speed data just before a slope intersection. We hypothesized that the mean speed would be lower in the presence of the logo than in its absence. As predicted, the speed was lower (by 0.9 km/h) when the skiers had been primed (i.e., exposed to the logo). This decrease was relevant, since any reduction in speed downhill will reduce kinetic (impact) energy and thus the risk of injury in a collision. The effect of priming was statistically significant at noon and in the afternoon but not in the morning. Our pilot study is the first to show that a priming procedure can influence the speed of skiers at a dangerous location. Our findings open up new perspectives for the prevention of risk behavior in winter sports.

Grade and speed have greater influence on HR and RPE than ability, sex, and age in alpine skiing.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of ski slope grade, skiing speed, skiing ability, sex, and age on HR, RPE, and energy expenditure responses during recreational alpine skiing. Thirty-eight participants were divided by age, sex, and skiing ability. Instructor- and self-paced skiing conditions were conducted on 10° and 19.8° slopes. Skiing HR was recorded, RPE collected at the end of each run, and energy expenditure calculated. The pertinent results of this study demonstrate that the interactions of grade × speed, speed × age, and grade × age and the main effects of speed and grade significantly influenced %HRmax, mean HR, RPE, and energy expenditure during skiing. When %HRmax is taken into account, the older skiers skied at a greater relative intensity than the young skiers. The sex, age, and skiing ability main effects did not have a significant influence on mean HR, RPE, and energy expenditure. These data demonstrates that increased speed and grade results in increased physiological stress. Using mean, HR data may not be the best option for assessing physiological stress during exercise in the older athlete as it does not account for the influence of the ageing process.

Effect of ski geometry on aggressive ski behaviour and visual aesthetics: equipment designed to reduce risk of severe traumatic knee injuries in alpine giant slalom ski racing.

BACKGROUND/AIM: Aggressive ski-snow interaction is characterised by direct force transmission and difficulty of getting the ski off its edge once the ski is carving. This behaviour has been suggested to be a main contributor to severe knee injuries in giant slalom (GS). The aim of the current study was to provide a foundation for new equipment specifications in GS by considering two perspectives: Reducing the ski's aggressiveness for injury prevention and maintaining the external attractiveness of a ski racer's technique for spectators. METHODS: Three GS ski prototypes were defined based on theoretical considerations and were compared to a reference ski (Pref). Compared to Pref, all prototypes were constructed with reduced profile width and increased ski length. The construction radius (sidecut radius) of Pref was ≥ 27 m and was increased for the prototypes: 30 m (P30), 35 m (P35), and 40 m (P40). Seven World Cup level athletes performed GS runs on each of the three prototypes and Pref. Kinetic variables related to the ski-snow interaction were assessed to quantify the ski's aggressiveness. Additionally, 13 athletes evaluated their subjective perception of aggressiveness. 15 sports students rated several videotaped runs to assess external attractiveness. RESULTS: Kinetic variables quantifying the ski's aggressiveness showed decreased values for P35 and P40 compared to Pref and P30. Greater sidecut radius reduced subjectively perceived aggressiveness. External attractiveness was reduced for P40 only. CONCLUSIONS: This investigation revealed the following evaluation of the prototypes concerning injury prevention and external attractiveness: P30: no preventative gain, no loss in attractiveness; P35: substantial preventative gain, no significant loss in attractiveness; P40: highest preventative gain, significant loss in attractiveness.

Alpine Skiing With total knee ArthroPlasty (ASWAP): physical self-concept, pain, and life satisfaction.

Physical self-concept in the elderly is assumed to be structured in terms of different domains and to contribute substantially to life satisfaction. However, little is known about the role of the physical self-concept in older persons that are engaged in physical activity while suffering from typical age-related impairments or chronic diseases. The present study aimed to investigate the structure of physical self-concept in a group of older persons with total knee arthroplasty (TKA), its development throughout a 12-week skiing intervention, and its importance to life satisfaction. Factor analyses of the present data reveal that the physical self-concept consists of four dimensions addressing strength, flexibility/coordination, endurance, and sportiness. One higher order factor extracted by hierarchical factor analyses reflects a global physical self-concept. The 12-week skiing intervention had no substantial impact in terms of an improvement of self-concept. Life satisfaction is best predicted by positive changes in the subjective ratings between pre- and post-test (i.e., global physical self-concept, flexibility and coordination, and perceived sportiness) and not by objective physical performance (isokinetic strength, endurance, or coordination). Results support the assumption that physical self-concept of older people with TKA is only marginally sensitive to a 12-week skiing intervention.

Alpine Skiing With total knee ArthroPlasty (ASWAP): physical activity, knee function, pain, exertion, and well-being.

This study focused on the psychological and quality of life aspects of resuming alpine skiing practice after total knee arthroplasty (TKA) in elderly skilled skiers. Two data pools were used in order to analyze psychological states: (a) at the beginning, at the end, and 8 weeks after a 12-week skiing intervention; and (b) concerning diurnal variations of states (i.e., skiing days compared with everyday life during intervention and retention phase). In particular, effects of skiing on amount of physical activity and perceived exertion, perceived pain and knee function, and subjective well-being were analyzed using a control group design. Results reveal that the skiing intervention substantially increases the amount of physical activity by the intervention group (122.30 ± 32.38 min/day), compared with the control group (75.14 ± 21.27 min/day) [F (2, 32) = 8.22, P < 0.01, η(2) = 0.34)]. Additionally, the analyses of psychological states demonstrated that skiing goes along with enhanced well-being and no significant impact on perceived pain, exertion or knee function. In sum, alpine skiing can be recommended for older persons with TKA with respect to well-being, perceived pain and knee function, and perceived exertion.

[INDIVIDUAL APPROACH TO THE USE OF MEDICATIONS TO NORMALIZE SITUATIONAL ANXIETY UNDER THE PSYCHO-EMOTIONAL STRESS].

Analysis of archival data revealed subsidence of situational anxiety accompanying work under psycho-emotional stress after administration of pharmacologically different psychotropic agents, such as stimulant mesocarb, nootropic and anxiolytic fenibut, tranquilizer fenazepam and alpha-adrenoblocker proroxan. Effectiveness of pharmacological anxiety control was dependent on individual sensitivity to these agents. Prescription of the medications with allowance for the factor reduced group-average levels of situational anxiety in 1.3 to 72 times.

Factors associated with the ability to estimate actual speeds in recreational alpine skiers.

OBJECTIVE: To measure on-slope speeds of alpine skiers and to compare their ability to accurately estimate their actual speed with regard to measured speed, age, sex, skill level, helmet use, and risk-taking behavior. METHODS: Skiing speeds of 416 adult skiers (62% men, 38% women) were measured with a radar speed gun. Skiers were interviewed about their age, sex, skiing ability, helmet use, and risk-taking behavior. Additionally, skiers had to estimate their measured speed as accurately as possible. The difference between estimated and measured speed was described as error of estimation (EE). RESULTS: Mean measured speed (±SD) of all participants was 48.2 (±14.3) km/h. Pearson correlation coefficient between the actual speed and the estimated speed was 0.57 (P < .001) for all participants. Skiers underestimated their measured speed on average by 5.8 km/h or 8.1%. A multiple hierarchical linear regression analysis revealed that when skiing speed is increased by 1 km/h the EE significantly decreases by 0.5 km/h. Male sex, higher skill level, risky skiing behavior, and younger age groups showed a significantly better ability to estimate skiing speed, whereas ski helmet use did not. CONCLUSIONS: Skiing speed, age, sex, skill level, and risk-taking behavior seem to influence the ability to estimate actual speeds in recreational alpine skiers.

Employee perception of a mandated helmet policy at Vail Resorts.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to measure support for a mandated helmet policy among resort employees along with the impact of such a policy on job satisfaction, and additionally, to measure the prevalence of barriers to helmet use among this population. METHODS: In all, 728 Vail Resort employees were surveyed regarding their opinions on the helmet policy and on general helmet use. RESULTS: The majority of the 728 employees surveyed (66.5%; 95% CI: 63% to 70%) agreed with the helmet policy. Only 18% (95% CI: 16% to 21%) reported a negative effect on job satisfaction. Older employees (>25 years old) were more likely to disagree with the policy (odds ratio [OR] 3.1; 95% CI: 2.2 to 4.3) and report a negative effect on job satisfaction (OR 4.8; 95% CI: 3.0 to 7.6). Skiers were much more likely than snowboarders to report a negative effect on job satisfaction (OR 9.8; 95% CI: 5.2 to 18.1). Among resort employees, ski patrollers were more likely to disagree with the mandate (OR 9.8; 95% CI: 6.8 to 13.9) and report a negative effect on job satisfaction (OR 13.2; 95% CI: 8.3 to 21.). Forty-three percent of participants (95% CI: 39% to 46%) agreed with the statement that wearing a helmet encourages reckless behavior whereas 51.0% (95% CI: 47% to 54%) believed that wearing a helmet limits sensory perception. CONCLUSIONS: A mandatory helmet use policy was supported by most resort employees. However, ski patrollers and older, more experienced employees were more likely to report a negative effect on job satisfaction. Barriers to helmet use continue to persist in the ski industry and represent a target for further educational efforts.

Attitudes regarding ski helmet use among helmet wearers and non-wearers.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to compare attitudes regarding ski helmet use in helmet wearers and non-wearers. METHODS: In total, 924 persons ≥18 years (52% men and 48% women) participating in sport programmes at the University Sports Institute Innsbruck/Austria were interviewed about their attitudes regarding ski helmets and scored 14 statements on a five-level Likert Scale. A factor analysis was employed to determine clusters of underlying attitudes that have subsequently been used as predictors of helmet non-use in a conditional logistic regression analysis. RESULTS: In total, 65% of participants declared to use a helmet during their preferred winter sport activity while more than 80% of helmet wearers and non-wearers totally agreed that helmets protect from head injuries. According to the factor analysis, attitudes about ski helmets clustered around four major dimensions-subjective disadvantages, safety awareness, comfort/style and risk compensation. Adjusted ORs of regression analysis showed that helmet non-use increased with age and decreased with increasing skill level (beginner: OR 5.4, 95% CI 2.6 to 11.1; intermediate: OR 4.3, 95% CI 2.4 to 7.9; advanced: OR 3.1, 95% CI 1.7 to 5.4). In addition, helmet non-use was associated with subjective disadvantages (OR 2.3, 95% CI 1.8 to 2.9). However, a negative association between helmet non-use and safety awareness (OR 0.3, 95% CI 0.2 to 0.4) was found. CONCLUSION: Helmet use was associated with higher safety awareness, while most arguments against helmet use seem to belong to subjective perception and to represent anticipatory negative cognitions, poorly supported by evidence. Therefore, evidence-based information about wearing a ski helmet should be implemented in preventive helmet campaigns focusing on non-wearers. In addition, health communication programmes should be instituted to get non-helmeted skiers and snowboarders to try out helmets to eliminate their potential prejudices.

Networking among women snowboarders: a study of participants at an International Woman Snowboard Camp.

The article focuses on women snowboarders' networking and relationships with national snowboard associations and commercial organizers. The study was conducted at an International Women Snowboard Camp, which attracted women snowboarders from five different countries. A qualitative interview was undertaken with participants from each country, eight in total, plus an interview with one of the organizers (a woman). The results indicate that participants from the Nordic countries adopt a more proactive stand to promote snowboarding by organizing specific groups in relation to national associations, particularly the Norwegians and the Finnish. Furthermore, some collaboration across national boarders appeared. The only Swedish participant was associated with several snowboarding communities; whereas the Italian (only one) and the Latvian snowboarders had links with commercial organizers, apparently male dominated in structure. The findings are discussed in the light of Castells' network theory and identity construction in social movements, and gender perspectives. The participants' doing/undoing gender reveals different strategies in negotiating hegemonic masculinity and the power structure in the organizations. Narratives from the Nordic participants reflect undoing gender that impacts on identity constructions in terms of project and/or resistance identity. The Italians and Latvians seemingly do gender while undertaking a subordinate position in the male-dominated structure.

Salzburg Skiing for the Elderly Study: study design and intervention--health benefit of alpine skiing for elderly.

The aim of this study was to monitor the long-term effects of skiing on the health-related parameters of older individuals. This paper describes the overall study design and the intervention phase. The study utilized a randomized control group design consisting of an intervention group (n=27; age: 67.5 ± 2.8 years) and a control group (n=20; age: 67.3 ± 4.4 years). Parameters of interest were measured during pre-, post- and retention-test sessions. The intervention phase lasted for 12 weeks, with an average of 28.5 days of guided skiing. Daily heart rate (HR) profiles and global positioning system data throughout the ski day were recorded. Perceived exertion levels as well as mood status of the subjects were recorded regularly. The intervention group completed an average of 4885 vertical meters of downhill skiing, with a total skiing distance of 40.5 km/day. In the skiing phase, the average physiological load was 72.4 ± 8.9% of HR(max) . The dimension "positive mood" referred to skiing (on scale of 0-10), with an average value of 7.6 ± 1.7 after skiing. The dimension of "negative mood" was much less pronounced, having a mean of 1.1 ± 1.5 after skiing. Two subjects suffered injuries while falling during skiing. The effects of the 12-week skiing intervention on the tested parameters will be reported in the following papers of this supplementum.

Does a skiing intervention influence the psycho-social characteristics of the elderly?

The purpose of this study was to assess whether a guided alpine skiing intervention lasting 12 weeks has an impact on psycho-social dimensions, measured by subjective assessments, of individuals who are 60+ years of age. A number of well-established questionnaires were used to measure well-being, life satisfaction, self-concept, health status, depression and self-efficacy. The physical self-concept in the domain "strength" increased significantly in the intervention group from pre- to post-test and remained stable through the retention test, whereas the control group demonstrated nearly no alteration. A similar effect was obtained in life satisfaction for the dimension "friends and relatives." On the contrary, psycho-social aspects of the elderly were not negatively influenced. The subjects of this study had very high pre-test scores that might reflect a ceiling effect which, in turn, can explain the marginal positive impact of the intervention. The findings of this study argue for recommending a guided alpine skiing intervention for individuals who are 60 years of age and older with high values in psycho-social variables.