Detection and genotyping of zoonotic microsporidia in the endangered Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus).

Microsporidia is a diverse group of obligate, intracellular, and spore-forming parasites that infect a wide range of animals. Among them, Enterocytozoon bieneusi and Encephalitozoon spp. are the most frequently reported species in humans. Limited information is available about the presence and molecular diversity of microsporidian species in the endangered Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus). Presence of Enterocytozoon bieneusi and Encephalitozoon spp. was investigated by molecular methods in wild and captive Iberian lynxes from Spain. Overall, E. bieneusi was detected in 3.2% (8/251) of the animals examined. None of the samples tested were positive for Encephalitozoon spp. Four known (D, EbfelA, PigEBITS7, and Type IV) and a novel (named as LynxSpEb1) E. bieneusi genotypes were identified. All the genotypes found belonged to the zoonotic Group 1 of E. bieneusi. This study provides the first genotyping data of E. bieneusi in Iberian lynx in Spain. Our result indicate that the Iberian lynx does not seem to play a relevant role in the epidemiology of Encephalitozoon spp., and that this endangered felid is likely acting as spillover host rather than a true reservoir of E. bieneusi. Additional studies should be conducted to assess the impact of this parasite in the health status of the endangered Iberian lynx.

The first records of Spirometra erinaceieuropaei (Cestoda: Diphyllobothriidae), a causative agent of human sparganosis, in Latvian wildlife.

Diphyllobothriid tapeworms of the genus Spirometra are causative agents of sparganosis, food-borne zoonotic parasitic disease. They have been recorded in broad spectrum of hosts, including humans, in all continents except Antarctica. Spirometra tapeworms have been intensively studied in several Asian countries; however, they have been rather neglected in Europe. The aim of this study was to provide a pilot screening of Spirometra spp. in Latvia, where data on sparganosis are not available. Tapeworms morphologically identified as diphyllobothriid species were isolated from grey wolves Canis lupus and Eurasian lynxes Lynx lynx from Latvia during the hunting periods 2013-2019. The parasites were subjected to molecular genotyping using sequences of the partial large (LSU rDNA; 615 bp) and small (SSU rDNA; 720 bp) subunits of the nuclear ribosomal RNA gene and complete (1566 bp) cytochrome c oxidase subunit I gene of the mitochondrial DNA (cox1 mtDNA). Analyses of both ribosomal subunits of 13 tapeworms revealed no intraspecific variation within the respective rDNA subunits. On the other hand, sequence analysis of mitochondrial cox1 revealed intraspecific polymorphism displayed by 12 cox1 haplotypes. Comparison of the current data with sequences of the corresponding DNA regions deposited in the GenBank revealed 99.3-99.5% (LSU rDNA), 99.2% (SSU rDNA) and 99.6-100% (cox1 mtDNA) identity of studied tapeworms with Spirometra erinaceieuropaei, which provided the first confirmation of this diphyllobothriid tapeworm in Latvia. Since S. erinaceieuropaei is probably prevalent in Latvian wildlife and may also occur in other potential host species, further studies are needed in order to acquire complex data on its geographic distribution and transmission in the natural environment of Latvia, as well as on the spectrum of its intermediate, paratenic, and definitive hosts.

Description of Crenosoma vismani n. sp., parasitic in the lungs of Lynx lynx (L.) (Carnivora: Felidae), with identification key to the species of the genus Crenosoma Molin, 1861 (Nematoda: Crenosomatidae).

A new species of Crenosoma Molin, 1861 is described from the lungs of the Eurasian lynx, Lynx lynx (L.) (Carnivora: Felidae). Crenosoma vismani n. sp. differs from other species of the genus in the morphology of the male copulatory organs (two ventral rays originating from a common stem; three lateral rays with common stem; gubernaculum 79-92 µm long, well developed, spoon-shaped; spicules 232-253 µm long, slightly curved, with robust dorsal appendage) and a vulva with rounded, prominent vulvar cuticular appendage is located in middle region of body in females. An analysis of the morphology and life-cycle data for Crenosoma petrowi Morozov, 1939 from Ursus americanus Pallas indicate that this nematode should be described as a new species. The validity of Crenosoma schulzi Gagarin, 1958 is resurrected. A new identification key for the species of Crenosoma is provided. Published records of the genus Crenosoma from definitive hosts and patterns of host specificity are presented. Morphological data revealed that the genus Crenosoma should contain 15 species (14 with valid names) with different host specificity, ranging from oioxenous to euryxenous. However, a review of the current genetic data indicates that the actual number of Crenosoma spp. is greater, and the host range is still unknown, even in Europe.

First confirmed case of Alaria alata mesocercaria in Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) hunted in Latvia.

Trematode Alaria spp. have a complex life cycle that includes canids, mustelids, and felids as definitive hosts. However, several mammal species, besides acting as definitive hosts, may also act as paratenic hosts. Alaria spp. life cycles are well studied. Still, there is a lack of knowledge on one host significance as both-the paratenic and definitive host, especially in the case of Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx). Previous studies have described Eurasian lynx as a definitive host for A. alata although the prevalence has always been low. The aim of the present study was to analyze the occurrence of A. alata in Eurasian lynx in Latvia. The viscera (n = 231) and muscle samples (n = 234) from Eurasian lynx were collected during the hunting seasons from 2004/2005 to 2017/2018. The prevalence of the adult A. alata in Eurasian lynx was 1.7%. However, mesocercariae infection in Eurasian lynx was detected for the first time. These findings suggest that the Eurasian lynx may serve both as paratenic and definitive host for A. alata.

Echinococcus multilocularis in a Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) in Turkey.

Echinococcus multilocularis is the causative agent of alveolar echinococcosis (AE), one of the most threatening zoonoses in Eurasia. Human AE is widespread in the Erzurum region of Turkey, but the situation of the disease in intermediate and definitive hosts is unknown. A Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) was killed in a traffic accident in the north of Erzurum, and was taken to our laboratory. Sedimentation and counting technique (SCT), DNA isolation and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis were performed. The SCT results showed that the lynx was infected with E. multilocularis with a medium (745 worms) worm burden. The DNA of adult worms obtained from the lynx was analyzed with a species-specific PCR, and the worms were confirmed to be E. multilocularis by 12S rRNA gene sequence analysis. This is the first report of E. multilocularis from Eurasian lynx in Turkey.

Trypanosoma cruzi strain TcIV infects raccoons from Illinois.

BACKGROUND: The northern limits of Trypanosoma cruzi across the territory of the United States remain unknown. The known vectors Triatoma sanguisuga and T. lecticularia find their northernmost limits in Illinois; yet, earlier screenings of those insects did not reveal the presence of the pathogen, which has not been reported in vectors or reservoir hosts in this state. OBJECTIVES: Five species of medium-sized mammals were screened for the presence of T. cruzi. METHODS: Genomic DNA was isolated from heart, spleen and skeletal muscle of bobcats (Lynx rufus, n = 60), raccoons (Procyon lotor, n = 37), nine-banded armadillos (Dasypus novemcinctus, n = 5), Virginia opossums (Didelphis virginiana, n = 3), and a red fox (Vulpes vulpes). Infections were detected targeting DNA from the kinetoplast DNA minicircle (kDNA) and satellite DNA (satDNA). The discrete typing unit (DTU) was determined by amplifying two gene regions: the Spliced Leader Intergenic Region (SL), via a multiplex polymerase chain reaction, and the 24Sα ribosomal DNA via a heminested reaction. Resulting sequences were used to calculate their genetic distance against reference DTUs. FINDINGS: 18.9% of raccoons were positive for strain TcIV; the rest of mammals tested negative. MAIN CONCLUSIONS: These results confirm for the first time the presence of T. cruzi in wildlife from Illinois, suggesting that a sylvatic life cycle is likely to occur in the region. The analyses of sequences of SL suggest that amplicons resulting from a commonly used multiplex reaction may yield non-homologous fragments.

Update of the helminth fauna in Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) in Poland.

The Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) is a strictly protected species of large carnivore in Poland. It inhabits forest complexes in north-eastern Poland and the Carpathian region in southern Poland. The status of the lynx within Poland requires special attention because its range decreased between 1980 and 2001 and has not yet recovered. One of the factors negatively affecting lynx populations is diseases, particularly parasites. The helminth fauna of the Eurasian lynx is not fully known in Poland. Previous coprological studies revealed that Polish lynx have been infected with seven species of nematodes, three species of cestodes, and one species of trematode. In this study, we present new data based on examination of opportunistically collected lynx carcasses. The aim of the study was to complement data on the helminth fauna of Eurasian lynx inhabiting Poland based on morphological and molecular analysis of parasites. Four species of cestodes-Taenia lynciscapreoli, Mesocestoides lineatus, Spirometra sp., and Taenia krabbei-were found for the first time in Eurasian lynx from Poland and three previously reported species of nematodes-Ancylostoma tubaeforme, Toxascaris leonina, and Toxocara cati-were confirmed. Larvae of Trichinella britovi were also detected in Eurasian lynx in Poland for the first time.

PCR screening of tick-borne agents in sensitive conservation areas, Southeast Portugal.

The Southeast region of Portugal, particularly the Guadiana valley, is currently the reintroduction territory of Lynx pardinus (Iberian lynx), one of the most endangered felids in the world that is only found in the Iberian Peninsula. Over the last century, populations have declined, placing L. pardinus at extremely high risk of extinction in the wild and relying on reintroduction projects. Among the aspects taken into account in the establishment of new populations is the sanitary status of the selected habitats, especially concerning infectious diseases, including tick-borne pathogens (TBPs). This study presents the results of TBPs survey on ticks collected at sensitive conservation areas of Southeast Portugal. From 2012 to 2014, 231 ticks obtained from vegetation, sympatric domestic and wild animals were submitted for analysis. The presence of Babesia spp., Cytauxzoon spp., Theileria spp., Hepatozoon spp., Anaplasma spp., Ehrlichia spp., Candidatus Neoehrlichia mikurensis, among other Anaplasmataceae, and Coxiella burnetii were investigated by PCR. Six tick species were recorded, Dermacentor marginatus (n = 13/5.6%), Hyalomma lusitanicum (n = 175/75.8%), Ixodes ricinus (n = 4/1.7%), Rhipicephalus bursa (n = 7/3.0%), R. pusillus (n = 21/9.1%) and R. sanguineus sensu lato (n = 11/4.8%). The molecular screening confirmed the presence of two tick-borne pathogens, C. burnetii (N = 34) and Anaplasma platys (N = 1), and one tick-endosymbiont, Candidatus Midichloria mitochondrii (N = 45). The results obtained provide new information on the circulation of ticks and TBPs with potential veterinary importance in Iberian lynx habitat.

High seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in elk (Cervus canadensis) of the central Appalachians, USA.

Toxoplasma gondii is an important protozoan parasite of mammals that impacts animal health and behavior. Although this parasite has been documented in several cervid species, including red deer (Cervus elaphus) in Europe, little is known about T. gondii impacts on the closely related North American counterpart, the elk (wapiti, Cervus canadensis), which has increased in number and expanded in range during the past century. We assessed seroprevalence of T. gondii antibodies using a modified agglutination test (MAT) (1:25 titer) and blood collected from 142 free-ranging elk in Kentucky, USA, where the species was reintroduced during 1997-2002 after over a century of absence. Eighty of 142 (56.3%) elks were seropositive for T. gondii, but we found no infection or titer differences between sexes (U = 2146, P = 0.128). However, odds of T. gondii infection significantly increased with elk age (ß = 0.429, P = 0.001) by a factor of 1.54 (95% CI 1.19-1.99), and titer increased commensurate with age (JT = 3071, P < 0.001). High prevalence of T. gondii infection in elk of this region may be explained by sympatry with two primary hosts, the bobcat and domestic cat, as well as shed oocysts in the soil of this relatively wet and humid region. We suggest that wildlife agency personnel incorporate warnings about proper elk meat preparation into their hunter education outreach programs and literature to reduce the chances for human infection from consuming contaminated venison.

Antibody Detection and Molecular Characterization of Toxoplasma gondii from Bobcats (Lynx rufus), Domestic Cats (Felis catus), and Wildlife from Minnesota, USA.

Little is known of the epidemiology of toxoplasmosis in Minnesota. Here, we evaluated Toxoplasma gondii infection in 50 wild bobcats (Lynx rufus) and 75 other animals on/near 10 cattle farms. Antibodies to T. gondii were assayed in serum samples or tissue fluids by the modified agglutination test (MAT, cut-off 1:25). Twenty nine of 50 bobcats and 15 of 41 wildlife trapped on the vicinity of 10 farms and nine of 16 adult domestic cats (Felis catus) and six of 14 domestic dogs resident on farms were seropositive. Toxoplasma gondii oocysts were not found in feces of any felid. Tissues of all seropositive wild animals trapped on the farm were bioassayed in mice and viable T. gondii was isolated from two badgers (Taxidea taxus), two raccoons (Procyon lotor), one coyote (Canis latrans), and one opossum (Didelphis virginiana). All six T. gondii isolates were further propagated in cell culture. Multi-locus PCR-RFLP genotyping using 10 markers (SAG1, SAG2 (5'-3'SAG2, and alt.SAG2), SAG3, BTUB, GRA6, c22-8, c29-2, L358, PK1, and Apico), and DNA from cell culture derived tachyzoites revealed three genotypes; #5 ToxoDataBase (1 coyote, 1 raccoon), #1 (1 badger, 1 raccoon, 1 opossum), and #2 (1 badger). This is the first report of T. gondii prevalence in domestic cats and in bobcats from Minnesota, and the first isolation of viable T. gondii from badger.

A synthetic review of notoedres species mites and mange.

Notoedric mange, caused by obligately parasitic sarcoptiform Notoedres mites, is associated with potentially fatal dermatitis with secondary systemic disease in small mammals, felids and procyonids among others, as well as an occasional zoonosis. We describe clinical spectra in non-chiropteran hosts, review risk factors and summarize ecological and epidemiological studies. The genus is disproportionately represented on rodents. Disease in felids and procyonids ranges from very mild to death. Knowledge of the geographical distribution of the mites is highly inadequate, with focal hot spots known for Notoedres cati in domestic cats and bobcats. Predisposing genetic and immunological factors are not known, except that co-infection with other parasites and anticoagulant rodenticide toxicoses may contribute to severe disease. Treatment of individual animals is typically successful with macrocytic lactones such as selamectin, but herd or wildlife population treatment has not been undertaken. Transmission requires close contact and typically is within a host species. Notoedric mange can kill half all individuals in a population and regulate host population below non-diseased density for decades, consistent with frequency-dependent transmission or spillover from other hosts. Epidemics are increasingly identified in various hosts, suggesting global change in suitable environmental conditions or increased reporting bias.

Isolation and Genetic Characterization of Toxoplasma gondii from Black Bears (Ursus americanus), Bobcats (Lynx rufus), and Feral Cats (Felis catus) from Pennsylvania.

Toxoplasma gondii infects virtually all warm-blooded hosts worldwide. Recently, attention has been focused on the genetic diversity of the parasite to explain its pathogenicity in different hosts. It has been hypothesized that interaction between feral and domestic cycles of T. gondii may increase unusual genotypes in domestic cats and facilitate transmission of potentially more pathogenic genotypes to humans, domestic animals, and wildlife. In the present study, we tested black bear (Ursus americanus), bobcat (Lynx rufus), and feral cat (Felis catus) from the state of Pennsylvania for T. gondii infection. Antibodies to T. gondii were found in 32 (84.2%) of 38 bears, both bobcats, and 2 of 3 feral cats tested by the modified agglutination test (cut off titer 1:25). Hearts from seropositive animals were bioassayed in mice, and viable T. gondii was isolated from 3 of 32 bears, 2 of 2 bobcats, and 2 of 3 feral cats. DNA isolated from culture-derived tachyzoites of these isolates was characterized using multilocus PCR-RFLP markers. Three genotypes were revealed, including ToxoDB PCR-RFLP genotype #1 or #3 (Type II, 1 isolate), #5 (Type 12, 3 isolates), and #216 (3 isolates), adding to the evidence of genetic diversity of T. gondii in wildlife in Pennsylvania. Pathogenicity of 3 T. gondii isolates (all #216, 1 from bear, and 2 from feral cat) was determined in outbred Swiss Webster mice; all three were virulent causing 100% mortality. Results indicated that highly mouse pathogenic strains of T. gondii are circulating in wildlife, and these strains may pose risk to infect human through consuming of game meat.

Individual identification of endangered species using mosquito blood meals: a proof-of-concept study in Iberian lynx.

Host identification from mosquito blood meals has been routinely used to identify the feeding preferences of insects in studies on transmission of vector-borne pathogens. Here, we identified for the first time the susceptibility of the endangered Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) to the attack of a wild mosquito female, the mosquito Anopheles atroparvus. Furthermore, we used 11 microsatellite markers to test for the utility of vertebrate DNA isolated from insect blood meals for individual identification of wildlife. Only the three smallest markers were successfully amplified; however, this genotype did not match with any of the previously genotyped individuals in southern Spain. These results support the use of DNA from mosquito blood meals as a non-invasive source of DNA and a powerful tool on epidemiological and conservation biology studies. However, as may be the case of other non-invasive sampling methods, the utility of this technique is probably limited by the quantity and quality of vertebrate DNA.

First identification of Cytauxzoon manul in Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) in northwestern China.

BACKGROUND: Multiple species of the genera Cytauxzoon and Hepatozoon can infect wild felines, but the diversity of these and other apicomplexan parasites in Eurasian lynx is scarcely known. The aim of this study was to detect Cytauxzoon and Hepatozoon species with molecular methods in Eurasian lynxes and their ticks in northwestern China. METHODS: DNA was extracted from the heart, liver, spleen, lung, and kidney samples of three Eurasian lynxes as well as from their five ixodid ticks. These DNA samples were screened with polymerase chain reactions (PCRs) for Cytauxzoon with the partial cytochrome b gene (CytB), cytochrome c oxidase subunit I gene (COI), and small subunit ribosomal RNA gene (18S rRNA), and Hepatozoon with three different fragments of small subunit ribosomal RNA gene (18S rRNA). PCR products were sequenced, aligned, and phylogenetically analyzed. RESULTS: One adult female of Eurasian lynx (#1, adult female) was co-infected with Cytauxzoon manul and Hepatozoon felis genotype I, while an adult male lynx (#2) was infected with C. manul. Interestingly, H. felis genotype I was both detected in a male cub (#3) and two out of five infesting Hyalomma asiaticum ticks. CONCLUSIONS: For the first time, Cytauxzoon manul is reported here from Eurasian lynx. In addition, H. felis has not been known to occur in this host species in China and Central Asia. Thus, the findings of this study extend our knowledge on the geographical distribution and host range of these haemoprotozoan parasites. Moreover, this is also the first evidence of C. manul and H. felis co-infection in Eurasian lynx.

TRICHINELLA AND AT LEAST THREE SPECIES OF SARCOCYSTIS PARASITIZE THE MUSCLES OF BOBCATS (LYNX RUFUS) FROM MISSISSIPPI.

Muscles of 25 bobcats (Lynx rufus) from remote areas of Mississippi in 2017 were tested for parasites. Testing for Sarcocystis infections included microscopic examination of fresh unstained muscle squashes, pepsin digestion of hearts and tongues, and histological sections of paraffin-embedded tissues. Sarcocystis spp. infections were detected in the muscles of 21 (84%) by a combination of methods. Sarcocysts were detected in the unstained tongue squashes of 2 bobcats. Sarcocystis sp. bradyzoites were detected in the pepsin digests of 3 of 19 hearts, and 12 of 19 tongues. In paraffin-embedded histological sections, sarcocysts were detected in 7 of 25 hearts, 17 of 25 tongues, and 5 of 23 limb muscles. Based on the character of the cyst wall, at least 3 morphologic types of sarcocysts were detected: those with small spikes on the cyst wall, corresponding to Sarcocystis felis, those with long villar protrusions, corresponding to Sarcocystis neurona, and those lacking visible cyst wall protrusions, representing an unidentified type of sarcocyst. Myositis associated with sarcocysts was seen in the tongues of 3, and in the limb muscles of 1 bobcat. Multilocus genotyping of the DNA extracted from paraffin-embedded sections from 2 bobcats, employing 18S, 28S, COI, ITS-1, and 5.8S and rpoB genes, diagnosed Sarcocystis caninum, S. felis, Sarcocystis lutrae, and S. neurona. An encapsulated species of Trichinella was identified in the tongue of 1; it represents the first documented occurrences in bobcats from Mississippi. Taken together, these observations suggest intensive exposure of these wild carnivores to Trichinella tissue cysts, implies predation or scavenging on these tissues promotes parasite transmission, and raises caution concerning zoonotic risk when such meat is rendered for human consumption.

Molecular identification of Taenia spp. in the Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) from Finland.

Cestodes of the genus Taenia are parasites of mammals, with mainly carnivores as definitive and herbivores as intermediate hosts. Various medium-sized cats, Lynx spp., are involved in the life cycles of several species of Taenia. The aim of the present study was to identify Taenia tapeworms in the Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) from Finland. In total, 135 tapeworms from 72 lynx were subjected to molecular identification based on sequences of 2 mtDNA regions, the cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 and the NADH dehydrogenase subunit 1 genes. Available morphological characters of the rostellar hooks and strobila were compared. Two species of Taenia were found: T. laticollis (127 samples) and an unknown Taenia sp. (5 samples). The latter could not be identified to species based on mtDNA, and the rostellar hooks were short relative to those described among other Taenia spp. recorded in felids from the Holarctic region. In the phylogenetic analyses of mtDNA sequences, T. laticollis was placed as a sister species of T. macrocystis, and the unknown Taenia sp. was closely related to T. hydatigena and T. regis. Our analyses suggest that these distinct taeniid tapeworms represent a putative new species of Taenia. The only currently recognized definitive host is L. lynx and the intermediate host is unknown.

Genetic characterization of Toxoplasma gondii in wildlife from Alabama, USA.

The genetic diversity of Toxoplasma gondii circulating in wildlife is of interest to understand the transmission of this parasite in the environment. In the present study, we genetically characterized five T. gondii isolates from different wild animals including two isolates from a bobcat (Lynx rufus), one from a red-shouldered hawk (Buteo lineatus), one from a white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), and one from a bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus). Genotyping of these samples using 11 PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism markers (SAG1, 5'- and 3'-SAG2, alt.SAG2, SAG3, BTUB, GRA6, c22-8, c29-2, L358, PK1, and Apico) revealed two types, including type I (ToxoDB#10) and type 12 (ToxoDB#5). This is the first report of genetic characterization of T. gondii strains in wildlife from Alabama and from a red-shouldered hawk.

SARCOCYSTIS AND OTHER PARASITES IN FECES OF BOBCATS (LYNX RUFUS) FROM MISSISSIPPI.

Rectal contents of 56 adult bobcats (Lynx rufus) in 2014 and 2017 from remote areas of Mississippi were examined microscopically for parasite stages after the sugar flotation method. Among the helminths, eggs/larvae found were: Paragonimus sp. in 12, Toxocara cati-like in 16, trichurid-capillarid-like in 3, hookworms in 27, and lungworms in 28. Among the protozoa, oocysts/cysts found were: Cystoisospora felis-like in 2, Cystoisospora rivolta-like in 4, Cryptosporidium sp. in 1, and Giardia sp. in 1. Additionally, numerous Sarcocystis sporocysts were detected in the feces of 12 bobcats; sporocysts were described morphologically. The status of C. felis derived from the bobcat and other wild felids is reviewed and compared with C. felis from the domestic cat. It is the first record of C. rivolta from the bobcat. The presence of eggs of Paragonimus sp. and T. cati in feces of 21.4% and 28.5%, respectively, suggests a role for the bobcat in the dissemination of these zoonotic helminths in the environment in the wild. Taxonomy of coccidia of wild Felidae is discussed and Isospora lyncisLevine and Ivens, 1981 from the Lynx is now regarded as a species inquirenda.

Zoonotic parasites of bobcats around human landscapes.

We analyzed Lynx rufus fecal parasites from California and Colorado, hypothesizing that bobcats shed zoonotic parasites around human landscapes. Giardia duodenalis, Cryptosporidium, Ancylostoma, Uncinaria, and Toxocara cati were shed. Toxoplasma gondii serology demonstrated exposure. Giardia and Cryptosporidium shedding increased near large human populations. Genotyped Giardia may indicate indirect transmission with humans.

Cytauxzoonosis.

Cytauxzoon felis is a hematoprotozoan parasite with a complex life cycle involving a tick-vector and a mammalian host. The mammalian hosts are all felidae but in the bobcat reservoir host, the parasite typically causes only a brief, self-resolving illness followed by a prolonged subclinical infection. In domestic cats, however, infection often leads to an acute febrile illness characterized by severe morbidity and mortality. Diagnosis is based on microscopic identification of parasites or molecular testing. Treatment for ill cats is expensive, difficult, and often unsuccessful. Prevention is quite possible and depends on avoidance of feeding by vector ticks.