Recent Advances in Understanding Mechanisms of TGF Beta Signaling and Its Role in Glioma Pathogenesis.

Transforming growth factor beta (TGF-ß) signaling is involved in the regulation of proliferation, differentiation and survival/or apoptosis of many cells, including glioma cells. TGF-ß acts via specific receptors activating multiple intracellular pathways resulting in phosphorylation of receptor-regulated Smad2/3 proteins that associate with the common mediator, Smad4. Such complex translocates to the nucleus, binds to DNA and regulates transcription of many genes. Furthermore, TGF-ß-activated kinase-1 (TAK1) is a component of TGF-ß signaling and activates mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascades. Negative regulation of TGF-ß/Smad signaling may occur through the inhibitory Smad6/7. While genetic alterations in genes related to TGF-ß signaling are relatively rare in gliomas, the altered expression of those genes is a frequent event. The increased expression of TGF-ß1-3 correlates with a degree of malignancy of human gliomas. TGF-ß may contribute to tumor pathogenesis in many ways: by direct support of tumor growth, by maintaining self-renewal of glioma initiating stem cells and inhibiting anti-tumor immunity. Glioma initiating cells are dedifferentiated cells that retain many stem cell-like properties, play a role in tumor initiation and contribute to its recurrence. TGF-ß1,2 stimulate expression of the vascular endothelial growth factor as well as the plasminogen activator inhibitor and some metalloproteinases that are involved in vascular remodeling, angiogenesis and degradation of the extracellular matrix. Inhibitors of TGF-ß signaling reduce viability and invasion of gliomas in animal models and show a great promise as novel, potential anti-tumor therapeutics.