Progress toward gender equality in the United States has slowed or stalled.

We examine change in multiple indicators of gender inequality for the period of 1970 to 2018. The percentage of women (age 25 to 54) who are employed rose continuously until ∼2000 when it reached its highest point to date of 75%; it was slightly lower at 73% in 2018. Women have surpassed men in receipt of baccalaureate and doctoral degrees. The degree of segregation of fields of study declined dramatically in the 1970s and 1980s, but little since then. The desegregation of occupations continues but has slowed its pace. Examining the hourly pay of those aged 25 to 54 who are employed full-time, we found that the ratio of women's to men's pay increased from 0.61 to 0.83 between 1970 and 2018, rising especially fast in the 1980s, but much slower since 1990. In sum, there has been dramatic progress in movement toward gender equality, but, in recent decades, change has slowed and on some indicators stalled entirely.

Rethinking industrial citizenship: the role and meaning of work in an age of austerity.

T. H. Marshall in his famous tract Citizenship and Social Class wrote briefly about what he called 'industrial citizenship', a type of belonging rooted in the workplace. Here Marshall's ideas are developed alongside a consideration of Durkheim's Professional Ethics and Civic Morals together with research material from the Guinness Company. It shows the way the Company actively sought to create 'Guinness citizenship' within its London brewery. The article draws out the ways in which the significance and potential of work based citizenship for ameliorating the ills of industrial society are clearly articulated in mid-twentieth century Britain and echo earlier neglected Durkheimian sociological ideas on work. These ideas have real potential to inform contemporary academic and policy debates about the nature of capitalism and the form and content of work now and in the future.

The redistributional impact of Canada's Employment Insurance Program, 1992­2002.

For a decade or so starting in the early 1990s, Canada's major income support programs underwent substantial reform. Meanwhile, the economy first lingered in a deep recession and then recovered with a period of strong growth. This paper focuses on how the distributional impact of Employment Insurance (EI) evolved during this period. We find that EI was strongly redistributive throughout the whole period with respect to the earnings of individuals, and somewhat less so for family income. But we also show that the distribution of benefits and contributions changed substantially over time, becoming less redistributive. Somewhat counter-intuitively, both the benefit and contribution sides of the program are shown to be redistributive, even though the contribution structure is regressive. These findings are relevant in the current context, as the economy struggles with a combination of high unemployment and fiscal pressures on government spending.

Sweat or no sweat: foreign workers in the garment industry in Malaysia.

In the last decade factory owners, in response to brand-name Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) parameters, have joined associations that verify (through a monitoring and audit system) that management does not exploit labour. There have been no reports of violations of codes of conduct concerning Malaysian workers but for foreign workers on contract there are certain areas that have been reported. These areas, including trade union membership, the withholding of workers' passports and unsuitable accommodation, generally escape notice because auditors who monitor factory compliance do not question the terms of contracts as long as they comply with national labour standards. This paper is based on research with foreign workers in Malaysia and argues that despite the success of the anti-sweatshop movement in a global context, the neo-liberal state in Malaysia continues to place certain restrictions on transnational labour migrants which breach garment industry codes of conduct. Available evidence does not support the assumption that CSR practices provide sufficient protection for both citizen and foreign workers on contract in the garment industry.

The eighteenth-century vagrant contractor.

This article traces the salient developments in poor law and vagrancy law that led to the counties of England and Wales being obliged to shoulder the financial burden of the mobile poor throughout the eighteenth century. It shows that despite the lack of statutory authority many, probably most, counties contracted with a new type of official to implement the conveyance of vagrants under vagrancy legislation in an attempt to counter suspected negligence and profiteering by constables. It shows, with particular reference to Middlesex and the West Riding, that the terms and conditions of these contracts varied considerably, and describes arrangements for the vagrants. The article also suggests reasons why the mobile poor formed an increasing segment of the population well into the nineteenth century and finds that by then the contractors were suspected of the same faults as the constables before them, leading to the abandonment of the contractor system.

Black nurses in the United States: 1879-1992.

In the fall of 1991, while attending the Annual Convention of the New York State Nurses Association, a group of students who had heard me speak at their school recognized me in the audience. One of them blurted out, "That's Dr. Carnegie, the first Black nurse!" I was flattered by the recognition, but not by the designation. True, I have been in this world a long time but not that long. If Mary Mahoney, America's first Black nurse, had been alive in 1991, she would have been nearly 150 years old. This article focuses on the progress made by Black nurses in the 114 years from the time Mary Mahoney graduated from the New England Hospital for Women and Children in Boston, Massachusetts in 1879 to 1992 in the areas of education, employment, and organized nursing.

Déjà vu and the regulation of nursing in Victoria.

The issue of the regulation of nursing is a perennial one. In the current climate of review of regulatory practices in the State of Victoria, Australia it is perhaps surprising to note the consistency of issues and positions in this debate over the past seventy-five years. This paper examines the emergence of the first Nurses' Board of Victoria and the political struggles that its implementation entailed. It is argued that the mobilisation of civic discourse by nurses was the means used to extend nursing autonomy and control over regulatory practices. However, this civic discourse did not realise nursing's own interests but widened the role of nurses in the governance of the profession and health services more generally. The current debate over the role of non-nurses in nursing roles and issues of regulation is also discussed.

[The early modern state and the responsibility for public health]. / Den tidligmoderne staten og ansvaret for undersåttenes helse.

The year 2003 will mark the 4th centenary of the Norwegian public health system. The formal occasion is the appointment of Dr. Vilhadius Adamius (c. 1564-1616) as ordinario medico in 1603. He was granted income from the crown's landed property to carry on his work as a doctor in Bergen, at the time a provincial town in the kingdom of Denmark-Norway. Denmark already had 10-12 doctors in similar offices. Dr. Vilhadius was not the first physician in Norway, nor was he the first with public funding. But as the first doctor in a clearly defined office, he stands out as a strong symbol of the rudimentary health care system introduced in Denmark-Norway in the 17th century. In many ways, he represents the formation of the early modern state, and a modernization process in which the appointments of doctors mirrored the state's growing willingness and ability to assume responsibility for the health of its subjects.

[Study on analyzing the trend of employing pharmaceutical graduates in the past 19 years (1985-2003)].

The history of pharmaceutical education and research in Japan is quite limited compared to that in Western countries. The separation of prescription from dispensing did not become a general practice for many years in Japan, although it was already enacted by law in the Meiji Era. However, separation started to progress very rapidly in 1994 when the Medical Service Law was amended, recognized pharmacists as members of healthcare teams. This change has brought about a drastic change in the employment of pharmaceutical graduates. We analyzed changes in the employment of pharmaceutical graduates over the past 19 years (1985-2003) based on the "Report on the Trend of Employment of Pharmaceutical Graduates", published by the Pharmaceutical Education Council. Analysis by gender gave a number of interesting findings, showing a clear shift of female graduates from pharmaceutical companies to dispensing pharmacies since 1994. This tendency is shown in the three line graphs in Figs. 1~3.